Basic Research in the Mission Agencies 

Agency Perspectives 

on the Conduct 

and Support of Basic 

Research 


National Science Board 1978 


NATIONAL SCIENCE BOARD 


Dr. Norman Hackerman (Chairman, National 

Science Board), President, Rice University 
Dr. Russell D. O'Neal (Vice Chairman, National 

Science Board), Consultant, KMS Fusion, Inc., 

Ann Arbor, Michigan 
Dr. Richard C. Atkinson, (Member ex officio), 

Director, National Science Foundation 
Dr. Raymond L. Bisplinghoff, Vice President for 

Research and Development, Tyco Laboratories, 

Inc., Exeter, New Hampshire 
Dr. W. Glenn Campbell, Director, Hoover 

Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, 

Stanford University 
Dr. Jewel Plummer Cobb, Dean and Professor of 

Biology, Douglass College, Rutgers — The State 

University of New Jersey 
Dr. Lloyd M. Cooke, Vice Chairman, Economic 

Development Council of New York City, Inc. 
Mr. Herbert D. Doan, Chairman, Doan Resources 

Corporation, Midland, Michigan 
Dr. T. Marshall Hahn, Jr., President, Georgia- 
Pacific Corporation, Portland, Oregon 
Dr. Anna J. Harrison, William R. Kenan, Jr., 

Professor of Chemistry, Mount Holyoke 

College 
Dr. John R. Hogness, President, University of 

Washington 
Dr. W. N. Hubbard, Jr., President, The Upjohn 

Company, Kalamazoo, Michigan 
Dr. William F. Hueg, Jr., Professor of Agronomy 

and Deputy Vice President and Dean, Institute 

of Agriculture, Forestry, and Home Economics, 

University of Minnesota 


Dr. Marian E. Koshland, Professor of Bacteriology 

and Immunology, University of California at 

Berkeley 
Dr. Saunders Mac Lane, Max Mason Distinguished 

Service Professor of Mathematics, University of 

Chicago 
Dean William H. Meckling, Dean, The Graduate 

School of Management, The University of 

Rochester 
Dr. Grover E. Murray, University Professor, Texas 

Tech University Complex 
Dr. William A. Nierenberg, Director, Scripps 

Institution of Oceanography, University of 

California at San Diego 
Dr. Joseph M. Pf.ttit, President, Georgia Institute 

of Technology 
Dr. Joseph M. Reynolds, Boyd Professor of Physics 

and Vice President for Instruction and 

Research, Louisiana State University 
Dr. Donald B. Rice, Jr., President, The Rand 

Corporation, Santa Monica, California 
Dr. Alexander Rich, Sedgwick Professor of 

Biophysics, Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology 
Dr. L. Donald Shields, President, California State 

University at Fullerton 
Dr. Charles P. Slighter, Professor of Physics and 

in the Center for Advanced Study, University of 

Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 
Dr. James H. Zumberce, President, Southern 

Methodist University 


Miss Vernice Anderson, Executive Secretary', National Science Board 


Basic Research in the Mission Agencies 


Agency 


Perspectives 


on 


the Conduct 


===== ^p 


and Support of Basic 

Research 


= — ' m 

^ --• r^ 


Report of the 


^^^o 
^^^m 


Nationa Science Board 


^^So 


1978 


National Science Board 
National Science Foundation 


For sale by tlio Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing ORice, 
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price: $5.75 

Stock No. 038-O0O-O0363-8 


LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 


March 24, 1978 


My Dear Mr. President: 

I have the honor of transmitting to you, and through you to the Congress, 
the annual report of the National Science Board. 

Our tenth report is concerned with the basic research supported hy executive 
branch agencies of the Federal Government. We have been assisted in preparing 
this survey by detailed submissions from 14 mission agencies and two other 
agencies that provide important support for basic research. 

We hope that this report will serve as a source of information about federally 
supported basic research for the executive branch, the Congress, the scientific, 
educational, and business communities, and others concerned with federally 
supported basic research. 

The report includes agency perspectives on how fundamental scientific inqui- 
ry assists the Federal Government to carry out its varied missions. The organi- 
zation and management of this effort, which includes research performers in 
Government, academia, industry, and the nonprofit sector, also are described. 


Respectfully yours. 

.rr 


Norman Hackerman 

Chairman, National Science Board 


The Honorable 

The President of the United States 


PREFACE 


The National Science Foundation was established in 1950 "To promote the 
progress of science; to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare; to 
secure the national defense; and other purposes."' 

The National Science Board, the policymaking body of the Foundation, has 
as its principal role the discharge of the basic mission "... to initiate and 
support basic scientific research and programs to strengthen scientific research 
potential and science education programs at all levels. . . ."- 

The Foundation is also obliged ". . .to evaluate the status and needs of the 
various sciences as evidenced by programs, projects, and studies undertaken 
by agencies of the Federal Government. . . ."'^ 

The National Science Board believes that the status and health of the scien- 
tific enterprise in the United States are good and that our effort compares satis- 
factorily with that of scientific communities abroad. 

The Board's last annual report to the Congress, Science Indicators — 1976. 
described the overall U. S. effort. Our pool of scientific personnel continues to 
be sufficient, in general, to meet the Nation's changing demands and needs. 
This is due in large part to the strong programs of the so-called "mission agen- 
cies" and the others not so classified, which together provide funding for the 
entire spectrum of science. The vision and support of the legislative and execu- 
tive branches of the Federal Government have enabled the scientific and edu- 
cational communities to continue their roles of assisting in the solution of the 
Nation's problems and improving the quality of life of our citizens. 

In 1977 the Congress reinstated in the National Science Foundation Act the 
requirement that the Board render an annual report to the President for sub- 
mission to the Congress dealing "... essentially, though not necessarily ex- 
clusively, with policy issues or matters which affect the Foundation or with 
which the Board in its official role as the policymaking body of the Foundation 
is concerned. ""i 

For its 1978 report the National Science Board decided to review the contri- 
butions of the mission agencies to the Nation's scientific endeavor. As a result 
of this review of the agencies and their activities, the Board affirms its strong 
belief in the value of multiple support of scientific research by the Federal 
Government and in the key role of the mission agencies. 

The Board's assessment of the reports of the agencies reveals certain devel- 
opments, trends, and constraints in the system that should be highlighted for 
those responsible for research programs as well as for the legislative and exec- 
utive branches. These are noted in the General Observations and Highlights 
section of the Overview. 


Grover E. Murray, Chairman 
Committee on Tenth NSB Report 
National Science Board 


iPublic Law 507, 81st Cong. 

-Ibid. 

Mbid. 

■•FNjblic Law 507, 81st Cong., as amended. 


FOREWORD 


The National Science Board (NSB), the pohcymaking body of the National 
Science Foundation (NSF), has among its responsibilities "to evaluate the 
status and needs of the various sciences . . . and to take into consideration the 
results of such evaluations in correlating the research and educational programs 
undertaken or supported by the Foundation with programs, projects, and stud- 
ies undertaken by agencies of the Federal Government, by individuals, and by 
public and private research groups."' Recent Board reports have dealt with 
the Nation's total research and development effort and the Federal Govern- 
ment's role in this effort. This tenth Board report focuses on the basic research 
that is supported by the mission agencies of the Federal Government. 

The importance and value of basic research to the Nation's total R&D effort 
has been recognized at the highest levels of Government. The President has 
said: 

I think to the extent that basic research and development commitments 
can be oriented towards things that improve the quality of our people's 
lives and enhance the security of our Nation, contribute to our position in 
world leadership, to that extent these allocations of funds and interests 
will be more readily acceptable and supported by the American people. 

What we do in science in this country has a tremendous impact on the 
decisions made in other nations, strong and independent nations, because 
there is, as you know, a scientific community that is drawn together by 
mutuality of interest, and that is able to transcend obstacles that are raised 
by national boundaries. 2 

A recent memorandum from the Office of Management and Budget (see Appen- 
dix B) stated that the President 

is particularly concerned with the identification of critical problems cur- 
rently or potentially faced by the Federal Government where basic or 
long-term research could assist in carrying out Federal responsibilities 
more effectively or where such research would provide a better basis for 
decisionmaking. 

The Board has always been concerned about the health of basic research. It 
expressed this concern publicly most recently in its resolution of October 18, 
1974 (see Appendix A): 

Whereas, the national welfare requires and it has been a long standing 
matter of national policy that mission agencies pursue strong programs of 
basic research appropriate for their missions; 

The National Science Board encourages mission agencies of the Federal 
Government to maintain strong basic research programs in areas that have 
the potential of contributing to their mission objectives over the long term. 

In pursuit of its own concern and responsibilities concerning the overall Fed- 
eral basic research effort, the Board has attempted in this report to gather in- 


iPublic Law 507, 81st Cong., 42 U.S.C. 1862 and 42 U.S.C. 1863, as amended. 
^Remarks, Medal of Science awards ceremony, November 22, 1977. 


VII 


formation on the basic research supported by the Federal Government and car- 
ried out in agency laboratories, universities, industry, and nonprofit institu- 
tions. 

The objectives of the tenth Board report are: 

• To provide an objective survey of the current status of basic research in 
the mission agencies; 

• To serve as a source of information about basic research in mission 
agencies for Government scientists and administrators, members of the 
Congress, staff members of congressional committees, members of the 
scientific, educational, and business communities, and others; and 

• To examine historical trends in the support of basic research by the 
Federal Government. 

Most of the basic data for this report comes from information solicited by 
the Board from Federal agencies involved in science. Fourteen mission agen- 
cies and two agencies not so classified and more than 20 subunits of these re- 
sponded to the Board's invitation to participate.^ Each agency was given the 
opportunity to contribute its own submission for inclusion in the report. These 
appear in Part I. 

In addition, the agencies were asked to respond to a series of questions and 
issues. The questions and issues were stated in an open-ended fashion. (Addi- 
tional details on the methodology used to obtain agency contributions are in- 
cluded in Appendix C.) To supplement the material provided by the agencies, 
the Board has drawn upon broader statistical information on Government- and 
nongovernment-supported R&D regularly collected by NSF. From all this ma- 
terial the Board has constructed an analysis of trends and problems in the sup- 
port of basic research as it affects research performers and the various fields of 
science (see Part II). 

Finally, in order to give a historical perspective to these trends, the Board 
has included a summary of the Federal relationship to science since the found- 
ing of the Republic (see Part III). 

During the past year of preparation of this report, the Board has been im- 
pressed with the seriousness with which these Federal agencies have been ad- 
dressing their long-term responsibilities. There appears to be a growing recogni- 
tion of the role basic research can play in meeting those responsibilities. It has 
also been impressed by the breadth and scope of the research and development 
network that has been built — largely since the conclusion of World War II — a 
network that utilizes a unique combination of governmental, academic, in- 
dustrial, and nonprofit resources. Finally, this report provides evidence that, 
despite a host of recognized problems, federally supported basic research has 
produced and is continuing to produce significant additions to scientific knowl- 
edge. 


'Mission agencies are generally defined as those with continuing specific functional responsibili- 
ties (e.g.. Department of l^abor). The National Science Foundation and the Smithsonian Institution, 
not generally regarded as mission agencies, were included for completeness and comparison pur- 
poses. 


VIII 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


In addition to the authors and submitting officials who contributed the formal 
agency submissions printed in Part 1, the Board wishes to thank the following 
who contributed substantially to the preparation of the agency responses and 
who provided very helpful advice in developing the report: 


Burton W. Adkinson, 
Allen V. Astin, 
James R. Balsley, 
Alden B. Bestul, 
Sal Cianci, 
Nathaniel B. Cohen, 
James Coleman, 
Jane Collins, 
William G. Colman, 
Richard Dawes, 
Bowen C. Dees, 
Emerson Elliott, 
Sidney R. Galler, 
Carl R. Gerber, 
Peter Gerber, 
Mary Graham, 
Dwight E. Gray, 
Robert E. Green, 
Robert A. Harte, 
Richard Hartke, 
Thomas A. Henrie, 
Charles J. Hitch, 
Lawrence B. Hobson, 
Robert Lay ton, 
William L. Lehmann, 
Ron McCullar, 


Lawson M. McKenzie, 
Pat McKinley, 
Harry C. McKittrick, 
Hans M. Mark, 
Marian Mlay, 
Lloyd J. Money, 
Arthur S. Newburg, 
Joseph G. Perpich, 
Josephine Pitcher, 
William P. Raney, 
M. Rechcigl, 
Nathan Reingold, 
William Rhode, 
W. C. Schaefer, 
Donna E. Shalala, 
James A. Shannon, 
Willis H. Shapley, 
Shirleigh Silverman, 
S. Fred Singer, 
Theodore W. Sudia, 
William H. Taft, IH, 
Robb Thomson, 
Jerry D. Ward, 
Wilcomb E. Washburn, 
Elliot H. Weinberg, 
F. Joachim Weyl. 


The Committee on the Tenth NSB Report also is grateful to two members of 
the Board, Drs. Saunders Mac Lane and Russell D. O'Neal, who provided 
constructive criticism of the manuscript at various stages in its development. 

The following members of NSF's Division of Science Resources Studies 
provided advice with respect to use of statistical data from publications of the 
Division and reviewed portions of the manuscript: Charles E. Falk, Penny D. 
Foster, Thomas J. Hogan, Benjamin L. Olsen, and Eleanor H. Stoddard. Final- 
ly, the Board is grateful to Florence Heckman of the NSF library staff, and 
Janet Kiatta and Leeda M. Machnick, who served as secretaries to the report 
staff. 

Many others, of course, contributed substantially to the development of the 
report, and we are grateful to them. 


IX 


COMMITTEE ON THE TENTH NSB REPORT 

DR. GROVER E. MURRAY, Chairman. University Professor, Texas Tech 
University Complex 

DR. T. MARSHALL HAHN, JR., Vice Chairman, President, Georgia-Pacific 
Corporation 

DR. LLOYD M. COOKE, Vice Chairman, Economic Development Council of 
New York City, Inc. 

DR. WILLIAM P. HUEG, JR., Deputy Vice President and Dean, Institute of 
Agriculture, Forestry, and Home Economics, University of Minnesota 


STAFF 

Dr. C. E. Sunderiin, Executive Secretary and Staff Director 
Bradley F. Bennett 
Dr. Thomas O. Jones 
Dr. F. P. Thieme 

Editorial Consultants 

Daniel W. Gottlieb, Editor 
Ruth Macy, Associate Editor 


CONTENTS 


Pucf 

Letter of Transmittal iii 

Preface v 

Foreword v i i 

Acknowledgments ix 

OVERVIEW XV 

Part I— AGENCY SUBMISSIONS 1 

I n t rod lie t or y N ote 2 

Department of Agriculture 3 

Department of Commerce 34 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 34 

National Bureau of Standards 44 

Maritime Administration 54 

Office of Telecommunications 5? 

Department of Defense 36 

Overview — Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and 

Engineering 56 

Department of the Army 58 

Department of the Navy 70 

Department of the Air Force 79 

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 86 

Department of Health, Education and Welfare 88 

Alcohol. Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration 88 

National Institutes of Health 95 

National Institute of Education 110 

Department of Housing and Urban Development 117 

Department of the Interior 123 

Bureau of Mines 124 

U. S. Geological Survey 128 

National Park Service 131 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 133 

Office of Water Research and Technology 134 

Bureau of Reclamation 137 

Department of Justice 140 

National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice 140 

Department of Labor 150 

Department of State 152 

Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Afl"airs 152 

Agency for International Development 153 

Department of Transportation 155 

Energy Research and Development Administration 162 

Environmental Protection Agency 176 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 184 

National Science Foundation 191 

I nt roduct ion 191 

Astronomical, Atmospheric, Earth, and Ocean Sciences 194 

Biological, Behavioral, and Social Sciences 205 

Mathematical and Physical Sciences, and Engineering 211 

Research Applications 216 

Scientific, Technological, and International Affairs 223 

Science Education 224 

xi 


Page 

Smithsonian Institution 226 

Veteians Administration 230 

Part II— SELECTED ASPECTS OF FEDERAL SUPPORT OF BASIC 

RESEARCH 233 

I nt rod net ion 235 

Chapter 1 — Basic Research in Agency Laboratories and Federally Funded 

Research and Development Centers 241 

Chapter 2 — Agency Support of Basic Research in Industry 253 

Chapter 3 — Agency Support of Basic Research in Universities and Colleges ... 257 

Chapter 4 — Agency Support of Basic Research by Field of Science 263 

Chapter 5 — Management of Basic Research in the Mission Agencies 267 

Chapter 6 — Effects of Recent Legislation on Agency Support of Basic 

Research 279 

Chapter 7 — Barriers to Optimum Support and Conduct of Basic Research by 

the Mission Agencies 283 

Chapters — Interagency Coordination of Basic Research 291 

Chapter 9 — Priorities and Gap Areas 303 

Part III— THE MISSION AGENCIES: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS AND 

HISTORICAL TRENDS 321 

Introduction 323 

Department of Defense 325 

Army 325 

Air Force 328 

Navy 329 

Other Aspects of Department of Defense Research 335 

Department of Commerce 335 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 336 

National Bureau of Standards 337 

Economic Development Administration 339 

National Fire Prevention and Control Administration 339 

Maritime Administration 339 

National Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere 340 

Department of Agriculture 340 

Smithsonian Institution 342 

Department of the Interior 345 

U.S. Geological Survey 346 

Bureau of Reclamation 347 

Bureau of M i nes 347 

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 347 

Office of Water Research and Technology 348 

National Park Service 348 

Summary 349 

Department of Health, Education and Welfare 349 

Public Health Service 349 

Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration 351 

National Institutes of Health 351 

Health Services Administration 352 

National Institute of Education 352 

Social Security Administration 352 

Summary 352 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 353 

Department of Energy and Energy Research and Development Administration 357 

Veterans Administration 360 

Department of Labor 362 

National Science Foundation 362 

Department of Transportation 364 

xii 


Department of Justice 365 

Other Executive Agencies 365 

Appendices 367 

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms 395 

Index 401 


XIII 


OVERVIEW 


General Observations and Highlights 

Perhaps the broadest generahzation that can be 
made is that agencies have difficulty making a 
sharp distinction between basic and applied re- 
search. The great variation in reporting of re- 
search by basic, applied, and other categories can 
lead to serious discrepancies in Government-wide 
data on research and development. Given this and 
other limitations stated below, it is still possible, 
based on the inputs from the mission agencies, to 
make some general observations on accomplish- 
ments, trends, problems, and issues concerning 
basic research supported by the Federal Govern- 
ment.' These are, in brief: 

1 . Basic research is useful. 

• Federally supported basic research has 
produced and continues to produce signifi- 
cant additions to scientific knowledge that 
are or promise to be of high potential in 
addressing national problems and con- 
cerns. Moreover, mission agencies, in the 
main, acknowledge payoffs from their in- 
vestments in basic research. Examples of 
interesting payoffs are listed below in the 
section "Examples of Basic Research." 

2. Federal support of basic research has de- 
clined in constant dollars over the last 10 years. 

• In current dollars. Federal basic research 
obligations have grown by an average of 
4.3 percent annually from 1968 to 1976 but 
have declined by 1.8 percent annually in 
constant dollars. Although there has been 
a significant upward trend since 1975, esti- 
mated basic research obligations for 1978, 
as shown in the President's budget, are 5 
percent lower in constant dollars than 1968 
obligations. 

3. Mission agencies have expressed certain 
concerns about the funding of basic research. 

• The chief agency concerns have to do 
with (1) sharp yearly fluctuations in budget 
authority and (2) legislative expansion of 
agency responsibilities without commen- 
surate increases in funding. The latter un- 
intentionally can lead to reductions in ba- 
sic research funding to meet operational or 
other requirements. 

Several agencies ( including the National 
Bureau of Standards (NBS), the United 


'For a description of the methodology used in preparing this 
report, see the Foreword and Appendix C. 


States Geological Survey (USGS), and the 
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- 
ministration (NOAA)) point out that fund- 
ing for research has not kept pace with 
their increased responsibilities. NBS notes 
that a large number of tasks have been 
mandated by the Congress in 15 laws 
passed since 1965, frequently with no 
funds appropriated to carry them out. 
USGS lists 13 pieces of legislation in the 
last 9 years that have increased its respon- 
sibilities without providing increased re- 
sources with which to meet them. 

• Limited funding and unpredicta!?ility of 
funding are viewed as primary barriers to 
the conduct and support of basic research. 

• Major agency concerns about research in 
universities relate to the quality and ade- 
quacy of science manpower supply; insta- 
bility of funding; increasing red tape in 
recordkeeping and reporting; and shifts 
from basic to applied research, from long- 
to short-term projects, and from high- to 
low-risk projects. 

4. A number of factors have affected the em- 
phasis on and conduct of basic research. 

• Certain legislation, specifically the Mans- 
field amendment, appears to have caused 
some agencies to deemphasize basic re- 
search. 

• General legislation cited as affecting per- 
formers of agency-supported basic re- 
search includes laws dealing with safety, 
civil rights, protection of the environment, 
and preservation of endangered species. 
Specific acts of legislation and regulations 
required by legislation affecting the con- 
duct of basic research include those relat- 
ing to use of experimental animals and 
human subjects, protection of privacy, 
research on the human fetus, and use of 
dangerous drugs. 

• A proliferation of bureaucratic regulations, 
some of them resulting from the series of 
social and health laws passed by the Con- 
gress, requires agencies to place what 
seem to be serious hindrances on perform- 
ers of federally funded research. 

One agency finds that Government regulations 
regarding the control, design, and use of, survey 
questionnaires and protocol pose serious barriers 

XV 


to the conduct of effective social science re- 
search. An official of the agency states: 

These regulations, when taken together with the 
current government-wide drive to reduce paper- 
work burdens on the public and private indus- 
try, are so onerous as to be an effective barrier 
to the performance of many social-science re- 
search projects. Surveys of a properly drawn 
sample population are, in fact, among the most 
effective means of reducing paperwork bur- 
dens, when contrasted with typical government 
requests for information from an entire popula- 
tion. 

5. There has been a considerable increase in 
basic research in universities and not nearly so 
much in industry. 

• Performance of basic research by universi- 
ties increased 25 fold (in current dollars) 
during the period 1953-1977; during the 
same period, performance of basic re- 
search by industry increased only 5 fold. 

• Federal support of basic research in uni- 
versities totaled $1,290 million (current 
dollars) in 1977. This amounted to 47 per- 
cent of total Federal obligations for basic 
research ($2,755 million) in 1977. 

• Conduct of basic research by industry 
reached a peak of over $800 million (con- 
stant 1972 dollars) in 1966; it has been de- 
clining since then, reaching a level of 
about $550 million (constant 1972 dollars) 
for the period 1975-1977. 

• Federal support of basic research in indus- 
try totaled $201 million (current dollars) in 
1977. This represented 7.3 percent of total 
Federal obligations for basic research 
($2,755 million) in 1977. 

6. The changes in funding of basic research by 
the Federal Government have varied considerably 
among the fields of science. 

• Significant increases (in current dollars) 
occurred in the 1968-1977 period in Feder- 
al support of basic research in the life sci- 
ences (73.9 percent), environmental sci- 
ences (98.0 percent), engineering (71.8 
percent), and social sciences (67.2 per- 
cent). Support of basic research increased 
34.6 percent in the physical sciences and 
17.9 percent in mathematics and computer 
sciences. Support for psychology, treated 
as a field separate from both the life and 
social sciences, decreased by 3.6 percent 
in this period. 

7. There are several approaches to the manage- 
ment of basic research and, as might be expected, 
there are many problems in the management of 
basic research. 


• The factor affecting the quality of basic 
research projects that was cited most fre- 
quently and considered most important 
was the vision and leadership of the senior 
officials who plan and direct the work. 

• Unique management services are provided 
by university consortia. Such management 
and governing services, which have per- 
sonnel who understand basic research and 
which can call upon the most capable sci- 
entists to help plan and direct the pro- 
grams in the laboratories, are considered a 
valuable national asset. 

• Many officials believe that clarification of 
the use of the procurement contract, as- 
sistance contract, cooperative agreement, 
and grant would reduce confusion in the 
research community. 

• Constraints of Civil Service regulations 
also hinder the management of research in 
some agencies. 

8. Agency perceptions of "coordination" in- 
clude connotations of collaboration, correlation, 
and evaluation. Some agencies are apprehensive 
about efforts at coordination that might introduce 
elements of externa] direction or control. 

• On the whole, there appears to be a sur- 
prising degree of coordination, especially 
with respect to support and conduct of 
basic and applied research. This coordina- 
tion is achieved by both formal and infor- 
mal means, the latter being particularly 
important. 

9. Most agencies, in listing priorities and gap 
areas in their research agendas, frequently men- 
tion the need for basic research in the traditional 
scientific disciplines. 

• Thus it is not surprising to see the same 
disciplines occurring in the priority lists of 
a number of agencies. Eight or more agen- 
cies designate subfields of the materials 
sciences, the environmental sciences, food 
and nutrition research, physics, chemistry, 
mathematical and computer sciences, and 
the life sciences as deserving greater at- 
tention. 


Problems and Issues 

Many agencies identified specific problems and 
issues facing the scientific community that may 
need increased attention. The following quotations 
from agency submissions are illustrative. 

• Agriculture: ... A complete understanding 
of the nature of bacterial resistance to anti- 


XVI 


microbial drugs is essential for the protection of 
animals and human health. 

. . . The study (of requirements of pre- 
teenage girls for specific nutrients) also pro- 
vided evidence that the present National Re- 
search Council's recommended daily allow- 
ances for protein for children are minimal and 
do not contain a sufficient margin of safety. 

. . . Knowledge of the precise kinds, 
quantities and balance of nutrients required 
for human health and productivity is serious- 
ly lacking. . . . 

• Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health 
Administration: . . . There is a need to do 
careful simultaneous studies of the endocrine 
and bodily changes of puberty, along with 
concomitant emotional and behavioral 
changes. The need for such research is point- 
ed up by the almost absolute lack of reliable 
information on early adolescent develop- 
ment. Ages 10-15 are not even included as a 
separate category in the U.S. vital statistics 
data; this gap in reported data also contri- 
butes significantly to the absence of an epide- 
miology of mental illness in the early adoles- 
cent phase. 

• Army: . . . More than 65 percent of ad- 
vanced weapons system failures are materials 
failures. 

• National Institutes of Health: . . . Another 
area in which recombinant DNA technology 
offers hope of important progress is in clon- 
ing modified cells for the large-scale produc- 
tion of biological compounds for the treat- 
ment and control of disease. . . . Other pos- 
sible applications of recombinant DNA re- 
search include studies to increase plant food 
production by enhancing the efficiency of 
photosynthesis, and studies to decrease the 
fertilizer requirements of crops by transfer- 
ring directly to plants the microbia' enzyme 
systems that perform nitrogen fixation . 

• Housing and Urban Development: . . . Many 
of the phenomena around which HUD must 
shape its programs are not yet well under- 
stood. . .(A)nalysis has begun to show that 
some community problems may have coun- 
terintuitive solutions, which ordinary experi- 
ence and common sense might not have sug- 
gested. 

• Energy Research and Development Adminis- 
tration: . . . The industrial firms carrying out 
ERDA-funded development and demonstra- 
tion projects typically neither have nor seek 
funding for basic research tasks. The interac- 
tions are mostly quite indirect. The mechan- 
isms for assuring the most fruitful level of 
interaction need strengthening. 


• National Bureau of Standards: . . . The fun- 
damental issue regarding basic research in 
the Government laboratories is the need to 
maintain a Federal policy that encourages 
basic research of high quality. 


Examples of Basic Research 

Through their conduct and support of basic re- 
search, the mission agencies have made significant 
contributions to the progress of science and to the 
achievement of national goals. For example, ba- 
sic research is responsible for significant discover- 
ies in the amelioration and cure of disease, con- 
servation of natural resources, support of national 
defense, promotion of economic growth, and ex- 
ploration of space. More often than not, years 
must pass before the full significance of a re- 
search result is appreciated. Thus, it may be some 
time until science and society reap the full bene- 
fits of the research being conducted by the mis- 
sion agencies today. 

Hundreds of examples of basic research con- 
ducted and/or supported by the agencies are 
summarized in Part I of this report. The following 
examples of recent and current basic research are 
only illustrative. 2 

• Vaccines for Control of Animal Diseases 
(Agriculture): . . . Significant breakthroughs 
include- the development of a vaccine for 
Marek's disease, a cancer-causing disease in 
chickens. This has been an outstanding 
achievement in the field of virus-in-cancer 
and has reduced large economic losses due to 
this disease by a dramatic 80 percent. Another 
... is the development of a vaccine for 
foot-and-mouth disease from one of the four 
proteins that make up the protein coat of the 
foot-and-mouth virus. This is the first time 
such a vaccine has been produced from the 
noninfectious fraction of a virus. As a result 
of this research, work is in progress to se- 
quence the amino acids that are involved in 
producing immunity. Future vaccines may be 
made from noninfectious fractions of a single 
virus protein and may even be synthesized. 
These results are applicable to the control of 
human virus infections as well as animal vi- 
rus infections. 

• Laser Ranging Observations of the Moon 
(Air Force). One part of this analysis, con- 
ducted by Lt. Robert W. King, has enabled 


^Most of the material in this section is either quoted or 
summarized from the agency submissions in Part I. 


XVII 


more accurate determination' of certain geo- 
detic parameters that affect Air Force weap- 
ons systems. Another part has led to an ex- 
perimental result, which, according to the Air 
Force, is "of fundamental scientific signifi- 
cance: namely, that the mass responsible for 
an object's inertia is equivalent to the mass 
responsible for its gravity field. This is the 
equivalence principle, the cornerstone of 
Einstein's theory of relativity. According to 
several recent theories of gravitation, howev- 
er, the gravitational and inertial masses of an 
object are not exactly the same if the gravita- 
tional self-energy of the object varies with its 
position in a gravity field. Such a failure of 
the equivalence principle could not be detect- 
ed in a laboratory experiment, but it would 
cause an anomalous monthly variation of one 
meter or more in the moon's motion about 
the earth. Lt. King's five-year analysis of 
lunar ranging data has shown that there is 
no such variation to within the accuracy of 
the range observations, about 15 cm." 

• Endorphin Research (NIDA): . . . The dis- 
covery of endogenous morphine-like sub- 
stances (endorphins) in the brain of man and 
other vertebrates is a major milestone in the 
efforts to understand the mechanisms of ac- 
tion of narcotic drugs. Endorphins may be 
involved in the addictive process itself, that 
is, in the development of tolerance and de- 
pendence in opiate (heroin) addicts. 'Endor- 
phine deficiency' might be identified as a 
genetic or acquired trait that predisposes 
some subjects to become victims of opiate 
dependence. The clarification of this notion 
by intensive research efforts should be of 
significance in developing new treatment 
modalities or in designing better and more 
effective prevention strategies for opiate ad- 
diction. 

• Enzyme Transporters and Genetic Disorders 
(NSF). Building on knowledge only recently 
acquired in basic research on cell mem- 
branes, scientists at New York University 
(NYU) have taken an important step toward 
treating some genetic disorders. Manmade 
liposomes — artificial membranes — appear to 
be able to carry enzymes to cells unable to 
manufacture their own. The approach got a 
big boost recently when Gerald Weissmann 
and his colleagues successfully used it to 
"cure" Tay Sachs disease in a test tube. 

There are at least 30 human genetic disor- 
ders — Tay Sachs is one — in which certain 
cells don't produce a specific enzyme needed 
for normal functioning. But as Weissmann 


explains, merely injecting a missing enzyme 
to treat the defect doesn't work; the body's 
immune system rapidly engages and destroys 
the foreign protein. What is needed is some 
kind of biological "Trojan horse" that can 
evade immune surveillance and deliver the 
enzyme. Liposomes offer such a solution. 
For one thing, they can trap and ferry en- 
zymes. Weissmann and his colleagues have 
discovered how to camouflage the liposome 
so that it not only escapes immune assault 
but also manages to deposit its valuable car- 
go into enzyme-deficient cells. Thus the 
NYU scientists succeeded in causing cells 
taken from a patient with Tay Sachs disease 
to ingest liposomes loaded with the enzyme 
that is missing in the invariably fatal disor- 
der. Following that favorable result, intense 
efforts are now underway to find ways to 
apply the technique clinically. 

Weissmann also has high hopes for the 
technique in the treatment of local tissue 
inflammation brought on by the release of 
tissue-injuring enzymes. The idea would be 
to treat diseases such as arthritis by introduc- 
ing into the afllicted area liposomes laden 
with agents that inhibit the action of the in- 
flammatory enzymes. 

• Deep Sea Drilling Program (NSF): . . . Since 
1968. NSF has supported the Deep Sea Drill- 
ing Program (DSE)P) (Scripps Institution of 
Oceanography). The Joint Oceanographic 
Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling 
(JOIDES) provide scientific advice to the 
project. This has been the most successful 
large-scale study of the earth ever attempted, 
and it has provided the basic results on 
which proof of continental drift and sea-floor 
spreading is based. Over 50 separate cruises 
have now been completed. To date, 36 vol- 
umes detailing concise results have been pub- 
lished. A wide range of current literature in 
geology, geophysics, geochemistry, and their 
marine counterparts is based on the results 
of the project. 

• Slow Viruses and Neurologic Diseases 
(NIH): ... An important recent accomplish- 
ment in biomedical research is recognition of 
the role played by what are known as 'slow' 
or 'latent' viruses in disorders of the central 
nervous system. These pathogens are viral- 
type agents that require a long course of ac- 
tion — months or years — before the conse- 
quences of the infection become manifest in 
illness or disturbed function. The first recog- 
nition of their delayed action in human dis- 
ease came from a study of kuru, a severe 
motor disability resulting from cerebellar 


XVIII 


degeneration that occurred only among iso- 
lated tribes of natives in the highlands of 
New Guinea. 

. . . For his discovery that kuru and an- 
other degenerative and dementing disorder of 
the human nervous system can be caused by 
transmissible virus-like agents. Dr. D. Carle- 
ton Gajdusek of the National Institute of 
Neurological and Communicative Disorders 
and Stroke (NINCDS) was awarded the 1976 
Nobel Prize in medicine. ... Dr. Gajdusek 
is now coordinating a worldwide collabora- 
tive effort to determine the role of kuru-like 
agents in human disease. What has been dis- 
covered thus far may be only the tip of the 
iceberg; similar slow or latent viruses may be 
implicated in many of the more common 
chronic and degenerative diseases of the 
nervous system. 

• High-Energy Physics (ERDA). Among its 
many recent achievements, ERDA-supported 
research has revealed the presence of "a 
fourth 'charmed' quark and a possible new 
lepton as among the short list of the most 
basic constituents of matter and energy 
(which earlier was limited to three quarks, 
four leptons, and their antiparticles). The 
experiments suggest that the quark binding 
energy in hadronic matter may exceed the 
GeV range and may be the manifestation of a 
new basic force. It appears increasingly like- 
ly that all of the basic types of forces may be 
unified in a single framework analogous to 
the equations of Maxwell (which unified elec- 
trical and magnetic forces) and Einstein 
(which unified mass and energy)." 

• Archeological Theory (Smithsonian): . . . 
(Smithsonian) scientists have recently discov- 
ered two archeological sites in northeastern 
Colorado which indicate that man has been 
in the New World nearly 20,000 years earlier 
than the previously accepted dates of 11,500 
BP. Working near Wray, Colorado, this ex- 
pedition unearthed the most complete Pleisto- 
cene record yet discovered of man's cultural 
history in the Americas. The localities, 
known as the Dutton and Selby sites, contain 
evidence that ice age hunters killed and 
butchered extinct megafauna such as a 
mammoth, ground sloth, peccary, giant bi- 
son, camel, horse, as well as deer and ante- 
lope. These ancient hunters, with known an- 
tecedents in Siberia using only bone tools, 
appear to be considerably more sophisticated 
than previously supposed. These finds will 
call for an entire reevaluation of archeologi- 
cal theory for the New World. 


Reverse Os/nos/s (OWRT, Interior):. . . (B)a- 
sic studies sponsored by the Office of Saline 
Water led directly to development and com- 
mercialization of the reverse osmosis pro- 
cess. This process will make up a major por- 
tion of the Bureau of Reclamation's Yuma 
Desalting Project which will provide 100 mil- 
lion gallons of fresh water (per day) for Mex- 
ico." The basic research program which led 
to this application has continued. Basic poly- 
mer studies performed by several organiza- 
tions for the Office of Saline Water led to a 
new composite membrane which investiga- 
tors in the Fluid System Division, UOP, Inc., 
are working to perfect for desalination of sea 
and brackish waters. 


Historical Perspective 

Although the sciences were considered essential 
to the intellectual and pragmatic needs of the Na- 
tion since its founding, the evolution of Federal 
support for research was slow. Lacking specific 
Constitutional authority to support research, the 
Congress was reluctant in the early years of the 
Republic to appropriate funds for this activity. 
The Army was the first agency to undertake a 
major basic research task for the Government — 
the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804-06. It was 
not until 1807 that the first continuing scientific 
activity — the Coast Survey — was authorized. 
Despite the fact that the Constitution did provide 
specific authority for granting inventors exclusive 
rights, the permanent office of the Commissioner 
of Patents was not established by the Congress 
until 1836. 

The number and stature of scientific bureaus 
began to multiply in the latter part of the 19th 
century, e.g., the Geological Survey and the De- 
partment of Agriculture bureaus related to re- 
search. At the turn of the century Government 
institutions, e.g., the Bureau of Standards and the 
Bureau of Mines, began supporting research in 
industry. Research budgets were small but much 
was accomplished. Laboratory equipment was not 
highly sophisticated or very expensive and sala- 
ries were low. 

Yet at the outset of World War I, the United 
States lacked an adequate base of research in 
both the Army and the Navy. Although the Navy 
had a modern fleet, both services needed scientific 
help to combat the weapons they encountered. 
The National Research Council was created as a 
working arm of the National Academy of Sci- 
ences and proved very effective. Immediately af- 
ter the war research was cut back sharply in an 


XIX 


economy move. One legacy of the war, however, 
was the Naval Research Laboratory, which, 
though small, received continuous support for 
long-range research. 

Social science became of greater interest to the 
Government during the Depression; medical re- 
search also prospered in the Public Health Serv- 
ice. Efforts to relieve financial distress and unem- 
ployment of professionals in the natural sciences 
ran into many complications, however. 

Fortunately, the Nation had a wealth of very 
competent scientists, and they succeeded in call- 
ing attention to our poor state of preparedness for 
war. With the outbreak of World War II, the 
Office of Scientific Research and Development 
was formed. Its scientific contributions were criti- 
cal to winning the war. The development of the 
atomic bomb, radar, sonar, influence fuzes, supe- 
rior aircraft, and electronic countermeasures con- 
vinced the Government of the need for ongoing 
research. The Government continued support of 
research after the war with the Office of Naval 
Research, the Atomic Energy Commission, and 
the Public Health Service, followed shortly by the 
National Science Foundation. A great deal of this 
research was performed in universities. Although 
the universities were concerned about where this 
support would lead them, they have been an im- 
portant element of Government-supported basic 
research ever since. 

Important in-house laboratories and Federally 
Funded Research and Development Centers also 
came into being following World War II, but the 
postwar enthusiasm for research soon began to 
wane. Interest in research was renewed, however, 
when the Soviet Union put the first satellite into 
orbit. The USSR succeeded in sending a man into 
space and bringing him back safely. The Govern- 
ment responded by establishing the National Aer- 
onautics and Space Administration and a large 
man-in-space program. At the same time it in- 
creased its commitment to basic research in other 
fields. 

The present program of basic research, al- 
though somewhat less in constant dollars than it 
was at its peak, is still large and varied, and that 
which is supported by the mission agencies is 
important not only to them but also to the Nation. 


Limitations of the Report 

Accurate description of the extent and accom- 
plishments of basic research within the mission 
agencies is limited by several factors, including: 

• The difficulty of making a sharp distinction 
between basic and applied research; 


• The absence of submissions from agency 
laboratories; 

• The absence of submissions from some agen- 
cies; and 

• The exclusion of program and agency reports 
and reviews that were underway or complet- 
ed during preparation of this report. 

Several agencies expressed difficulty in distin- 
guishing between basic and applied research, and 
the definitions used by some agencies differ ap- 
preciably from those employed by NSF. The fol- 
lowing quotations from agency submissions are 
illustrative: 

• Agriculture: . . . Within the (Agriculture) 
system, basic research is generally insepara- 
ble from other research in both planning and 
conduct. 

• U. S. Geological Survey: . . . The Geologi- 
cal Survey's operating definition of basic re- 
search is research that advances man's un- 
derstanding of earth science and related natu- 
ral science processes and phenomena. . . . 
Most of the activities of the Survey are 
founded on the information gained from the 
basic research program. In short, basic re- 
search is the cornerstone of the Geological 
Survey's mission. 

• Energy Research and Development Adminis- 
tration: . . . Even within ERDA, different 
definitions of basic research are used in dif- 
ferent contexts. The concept poses difficul- 
ties whenever the utility of expected results 
is a criterion for choosing research tasks. 

• Environmental Protection Agency: . . . There 
is no official differentiation between basic 
and applied research in EPA. . . (W)hich 
research falls into which category is open to 
debate. 

• National Science Foundation: . . . (Basic re- 
search) is systematic, intensive study direct- 
ed primarily toward greater knowledge or 
understanding of the subject studied, rather 
than a practical use of this knowledge or 
understanding. 

• Smithsonian Institution: . . . For basic re- 
search, the end product is commonly thought 
of as investigation for the advancement of 
scientific knowledge in general. The goal of 
applied research is usually described as the 
discovery of new scientific knowledge with a 
specific objective in mind. 

The following quotation from the National Insti- 
tutes of Health perhaps sums up the dilemma best: 
Although these conceptual distinctions can be 
made, it must be noted that basic and applied 
research form a continuum, and a specific re- 
search project may be basic from one point of 
view and applied from another. This fact makes 


XX 


it difficult and in some cases meaningless to 
classify individual projects as either basic or 
applied; it is usually more meaningful to speak 
of research as having basic and applied aspects. 
Most agencies indicated that the same research 
project could be considered basic by the perform- 
er of the research and applied by the provider of 
funds. This difference in viewpt)int can lead to a 
serious anomaly in statistical data on the support 
of basic research. In one NSF publication, for 
example. Federal Government support of basic 
research in 1977 is reported as $3,530 million.^ 
Another NSF publication reports total Federal 
obligations for basic research in 1977 of $2,755 
million. 4 The former figure represents the view- 
point of the performers of basic research; the lat- 
ter figure, that of the Government agencies 
supplying the funds. The difference amounts to 
almost $800 million for a single year. 

The statistical data also must be used carefully 
because some agencies that prefer not to distin- 
guish between basic and applied research report 
basic research obligations on a formula basis as a 
certain percentage of total research funds. Other 
agencies make a distinction between basic and 
applied research but find themselves forced to be 
somewhat arbitrary in fixing the dividing line. 
Another source of discrepancy occurs when func- 
tions are transferred or missions redefined within 
an agency. As a result, the reported figures fluc- 
tuate but do not reflect any real changes in pro- 
gram. 

Nevertheless, data reported by other agencies 
for analysis by NSF's Division of Science Re- 
sources Studies usually are internally consistent 
and exceedingly useful for analyzing trends. Use 
is made whenever possible in this report of the 
data reported in the series of publications entitled 
Federiil Funds for Research. Development, and 
Other Scientific Activities. The analysis focuses 
on data through fiscal year 1977 but, for compari- 
son purposes, estimates are included for FY 1978, 
along with the President's budget request for FY 
1979 (Appendix K). 

Time did not permit submissions from agency 
laboratories or field stations or interrogation of 
laboratory personnel. Thus, it should be noted 
that the answers to some questions and perspectives 
on some issues may not reflect the viewpoint of the 
performer of basic research. 

The fact that agency submissions were prepared 
during a period of presidential transition caused 


'Nad'on.i/ Putlerns of R&D Resources. Funds, und Man- 
power in the United Stales. \95J-i977. NSF 77-310, p. 4. 

■* Federal Funds for Research. Development, and Other Sci- 
entific Activities. Vol. XXVI, NSF 77-317, p. 49. 


some difficulties and delays. In addition, no infor- 
mation was obtained from some agencies that may 
conduct or support basic research. These include 
the Food and Drug Administration, National Insti- 
tute for Occupational Safety and Health, National 
Endowment for the Humanities, Center for Disease 
Control, and National Institute of Juvenile Justice 
and Delinquency Prevention. 

Finally, some program and agency studies that 
may well influence changes in agency programs 
and organization are not reflected in this report. 
Some of these were reviews by external groups, 
primarily committees of the National Academy of 
Sciences, and were underway or completed during 
preparation of this report; they have been used in 
congressional hearings on agency programs and 
organization. Among the reports by external 
groups are: 

• "Understanding Crime: An Evaluation of the 
National Institute of Law Enforcement and 
Criminal Justice" (Committee on Research 
on Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, 
National Academy of Sciences). 

• "World Food and Nutrition Study: The Poten- 
tial Contributions of Research" (Steering 
Committee, NRC Study on World Food and 
Nutrition, National Academy of Sciences). 

• "Fundamental Research and the Process of 
Education" (Committee on Fundamental 
Research Relevant to Education, National 
Academy of Sciences). 

• "Analytical Studies for the U.S. Environ- 
mental Protection Agency" (National Acade- 
my of Sciences, various commissions and 
committees, II reports). 


Organization of the Report 

Part I of the report consists of the presentations 
made by each agency. They show considerable 
variation in both program size and sophistication 
of management and marked diflferences in how 
basic research is defined. Some agencies indicate 
they have felt negligent in not doing more basic 
research and are in the process of increasing the 
basic research component of their programs. 
Some agencies acknowledge that basic research 
can enhance the performance of their missions 
even though they report no basic research at pre- 
sent. 

Part n of the report was prepared by the Board 
and its stafi' using material provided by the agen- 
cies. The discussion includes descriptions of agen- 
cy programs, broken down by performers of the 
research and by fields of science. A chapter on 

xxi 


management describes facets of agencies' organiza- Part III is a historical survey of scientific re- 

tional structures and operating mechanisms. Sepa- search activity by the United States Government 

rate chapters focus on effects of legislation, barriers, since the founding of the Republic, 

and interagency coordination. A final chapter on The Appendices contain documentation of the 

priorities and gap areas summarizes these items as methodology used and tables of general applicabili- 

they were listed by the various agencies. ty. Also included are a listing of abbreviations and 

acronyms and an index of the entire report. 


XXII 


PARTI 
AGENCY SUBMISSIONS 


The material in this section consists of submissions by 16 major agencies and 
their subunits to the National Science Board for inclusion in the Board's 
tenth annual report. Except for minor editing, the text appears as prepared 
by each agency or subunit. The purpose of this section is to provide each agen- 
cy an opportunity to portray the significant aspects of its basic research activi- 
ties and contributions of these activities to agency objectives, to science, and 
to the national welfare. The agencies also were asked to include specific infor- 
mation such as policies concerning support of basic research, lists of the most 
significant projects carried out in the last 10 years, and research priorities for 
the future. (For further detail on the guidance given to the agencies, see the 
Appendices to this Report.) On the other hand, they also were encouraged to 
include any material they felt relevant to the topic. The names that appear 
under each organizational title are, as indicated, those officials either responsi- 
ble for preparing or submitting the material while this Report was under prep- 
aration in 1977. It has not been possible to include all organizational and poli- 
cy changes that have occurred since submission of material by the agencies. 


DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 


A. R. Bird, Economic Research Service (ERS); L.L. Jansen, Agricultural 
Research Service (ARS); D.B. Johnson, Forest Service (FS): and J.C. Wil- 
liamson, Cooperative State Research Service (CSRS) constituted a special 
work group that developed this report. D.J. Ward, Office of the Secretary, 
had general responsibility for arranging for the response to the National 
Science Board request. 

The work group members were assisted by special committees or 
groups drawn from national staffs within their respective agencies. Inputs 
representing cooperating State agricultural research organizations were 
provided by the technical staff of the Cooperative State Research Service. 
G.C. Taylor participated in the work group at times for ERS. TS. Ronnin- 
gen for CSRS, and R.G. Krebill for FS. J.R. Myers of the Current Research 
Information System (CRIS) served as consultant to the work group. 


Mission of the Department of 
Agriculture 

Broadly stated, the research mission for the 
publicly supported agricultural research system is: 
To increase scientific knowledge and to produce 
technical information and technical products that 
will contribute to the development and mainte- 
nance in the United States of permanent and ef- 
fective agricultural and forestry industries, in 
their broadest aspects; the development and im- 
provement of the rural home and rural life; the 
contribution of agriculture and forestry to the 
welfare of the American people and their environ- 
ment; and the promotion of human welfare and 
world peace. Agricultural and forestry research 
will give due regard to the varying conditions in 
all the regions of the Nation and to the needs of 
the people in all the States and Territories. 

The United States Department of Agriculture 
(USDA) was established by the Organic Act of 
1862. Through authorizing legislation in the Hatch 
Act of 1887, the Adams Act of 1906. the Purnell 
Act of 1925, the McSweeney-McNary Act of 
1928, the Bankhead- Jones Act of 1935, the Agri- 
cultural Marketing Act of 1946, the Agricultural 
Trade and Development and Assistance Act of 
1954, Public Law 89-106 (Special Grants Act) of 
1965, the Rural Development Act of 1972, and the 
Mclntire-Stennis Act of 1962, the USDA has es- 
tablished research cooperation with and funding 
support of the State Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tions (SAES), State forestry schools, the colleges 
of 1890, and the Tuskegee Institute. 


Six agencies in the Department conduct or fund 
research in the context of the above research mis- 
sion, although their research function is more 
formally documented as supportive activities of 
one or more of the Department's missions. All 
activities of the Department are now covered 
under 1 1 broad missions that characterize the 
Department's role in solving broad, national prob- 
lems. Mission-oriented research is conducted by 
the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), the 
Economic Research Service (ERS), Farmer Coop- 
erative Service (FCS), Forest Service (FS), Statis- 
tical Reporting Service (SRS). and cooperating 
State research organizations funded through the 
Cooperative State Research Service (CSRS). Ba- 
sic research is conducted as an integral part of the 
Department's research programs. 

The research arms of the State agencies and in- 
stitutions, together with the USDA research agen- 
cies, are the publicly supported agricultural re- 
search system. The structure and relationship 
among the major performing organizations are 
described in detail later on. 

The distribution of research among the per- 
forming organizations (Table 1) clearly reflects the 
major roles played by ARS and SAES in agricul- 
tural research and by FS in forestry research. The 
distribution of effort by science categories (Table 
2) shows the heavy concentration of research 
among biological sciences, with those that are 
plant-oriented accounting for a major part. USDA 
research ranges from one-fourth to one-third of 
total effort in biological research. Except for 
some social sciences, levels of USDA research 
exceed or are at least equal to State efforts in 

AGRICULTURE 3 


most other science categories. All efforts are 
complementary when examined in detail. 


Table 1. Distribution of full-time equivalent research scientists 
(scientist-years) in the U. S. Department of Agriculture and 
State agricultural and forestry research organizations, FY 
1975. 


Research Agency 

or 

Organization 


Full- Time 

Equivalent 

Research Scientists' 


Numver 


%of 
total 


USDA: 

Agricultural Research 

Service 2,910 27 

Economic Research 

Service 425 4 

Farmers Cooperative 

Service 23 < 1 

Forest Service 941 9 

Statistical Reporting 

Service 15 <1 

STATE:' 

Agricultural Experiment 

Stations 6,133 57 

Forestry Research 

Organizations 143 1 

1890 Land Grant Univer- 
sities and Tuskegee 
Institute 143 1 

Total 10,732 100 

'Individual values may not agree with totals tiecause of rounding 
^Supported in part by the Cooperative State Research Service (CSRS) of 
USDA 

Source: USDA 


phenomena or to provide additional fundamental 
information needed for progress on a more ap- 
plied problem. In many cases, such research areas 
as photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation, and insect 
behavior are pursued because of their explicit 
value and broad potential for application. Occa- 
sionally, pursuit of an applied problem generates 
a new area of explicit basic research. An example 
of this is R.W. Holleys experiments to under- 
stand how nutrient elements are moved from the 
soil into foods and feeds, a practical problem, 
which eventually led to his elucidation of the 
structure of ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules, 
for which he was awarded a Nobel prize. 

Basic research in the agricultural research sys- 
tem varies considerably among the broad science 
categories and within the biological sciences 
among the types of subjects being researched. 
Table 3 shows the allocation of funds for basic 
research by science category and the relative pro- 
portion of the total funds for the category that the 
basic funds represent. In actual magnitude, bio- 
logical sciences receive more basic research funds 
than any other science category, and plant-orient- 
ed sciences account for at least 50 percent of 
these funds. However, human-oriented and other 
biological sciences have a much higher proportion 
of total funding allocated to basic studies. 

Overall, during the past 10 years, basic research 
in the total agricultural research system has re- 
ceived increased support in terms of both actual 
and constant dollars. However, the proportion of 
basic to other research has remained more or less 
constant. The changes that have occurred in pro- 
grams of individual performing organizations are 
summarized in Table 4. 


Definition of Basic Researcfi 


Role of Basic Research 


For purposes of documenting agricultural re- 
search in the computerized current research infor- 
mation system (CRIS), basic research is distin- 
guished as "research with the primary goal of 
gaining knowledge or understanding of a sub- 
ject." Research that has as its primary goal the 
application of knowledge to meet a recognized 
need or to produce useful products is excluded 
from "basic." 

Within the agricultural system, basic research is 
generally inseparable from other research in both 
planning and conduct. This system is highly de- 
centralized. Much research of individual scientists 
is predominantly problem-oriented and usually 
developed for a timeframe of five years or less. 
Basic aspects, however, are often incorporated to 
answer the "how's" and "why's" of observed 


In developing an overall research strategy for 
the agricultural and forestry system, scientists and 
managers give consideration to all areas of re- 
search in the continuum from the most basic to 
the most applied. The strategy is to allocate avail- 
able resources over time among problem areas in 
this basic-applied research continuum in such a 
way as to make a maximum contribution to their 
missions. In the process of determining appropri- 
ate levels of support at any point in time for dif- 
ferent areas of research, basic research is viewed 
by research planner-administrators as having the 
following functional roles in the continuum of 
research activities: 

1. Creating new knowledge that will be useful 
in advancing future agricultural research at 
the basic or applied levels, or in advancing 


AGRICULTURE 


Table 2. Distribution of scientist years (SY's/ by major science categories in (JSDA and State agencies, FY 1975. 

USDA STA TES" 

Percent of Percent of 

Science Categories SY's Agency Total SY's Agency Total 

Biological Sciences 2,391 55 4,583 71 

Animal-oriented 494 1 1 1 ,421 22 

Plant-oriented 1,699 39 2,800 44 

Human-oriented 99 2 161 3 

Other 99 2 201 3 

Chemistry/Physics 712 17 483 8 

Engineering 477 1 1 342 5 

Environmental Sciences 127 3 100 2 

Mathematics and Statistics 46 1 46 1 

Economics 522 1 2 535 8 

Other Social Sciences 38 1 214' 3 

Unclassified — — 116 2 

Total 4,313 100 6,419 100 

'Individual values may not add To total due to rounding 

^includes State Agricultural Experiment Stations. State Forestry Schools. 
Colleges of 1890. and the Tuskegee Institute 
-Hncludes 133 SYs sociology. 34 SY"s education, and 20 SY's psychology 

Source USDA 


NATIONAL TOTAL 
SY's Percent 


6,974 


65 


1,915 


18 


4,499 


42 


260 


2 


300 


3 


1,195 


11 


819 


8 


227 


2 


92 


1 


1,057 


10 


252 


2 


116 


1 


10,732 


100 


technology in a general area of agricultural 
applications. These may be characterized as 
pure basic research and as mission-oriented 
basic research, respectively. 

2. Creating new knowledge that will be useful 
in solving an identified problem in agricul- 
ture. Such basic research may be viewed as 
mission-contributing or mission-supportive, 
depending upon whether the identified prob- 
lem is more or less specific. 

3. Providing a sufficient base of scientific ex- 
pertise to link with the scientific community 
at large so that applicable scientific ad- 
vances, wherever they may occur, may be 
interpreted and used to advance the agricul- 
tural research mission. 

4. Contributing to the range and diversity of 
scientific expertise needed in the process of 
research program planning, evaluation, and 
development. 


Examples of Basic Research 

The examples of recent and on-going basic re- 
search cited in this section reflect the mission-ori- 
ented character of such research in the USDA 
and the cooperating State agricultural research 


organizations. They range from the pure basic 
through mission-oriented and mission-supportive 
basic research to mission-contributing basic re- 
search and touch on only some of the many fields 
of science in which basic research has been per- 
formed. 

Development of Vaccines for Control of 
Animal Diseases 

Research to develop vaccines for the control of 
animal diseases continues to be given emphasis. 
Significant break-throughs include the develop- 
ment of a vaccine for Marek's disease, a cancer- 
causing disease in chickens. This has been an out- 
standing achievement in the field of virus-in-can- 
cer and has reduced large economic losses due to 
this disease by a dramatic 80 percent. Another 
recent significant scientific achievement is the 
development of a vaccine for foot-and-mouth dis- 
ease from one of the four proteins that make up 
the protein coat of the foot-and-mouth virus. This 
is the first time such a vaccine has been produced 
from the noninfectious fraction of a virus. As a 
result of this research, work is in progress to se- 
quence the amino acids that are involved in pro- 
ducing immunity. Future vaccines may be made 
from noninfectious fractions of a single virus pro- 
tein and may even be synthesized. These results 


AGRICULTURE 


Table 3. Funds allocated for basic research by performing agricultural research organizations and by science categories, FY 1975.' 


ARS FS ERS SRS^\ FCS^^ States' 

Science Category Funds PCT Funds PCT Funds PCT Funds PCT Funds PCT 

Biological Sciences $66.7 46 $14.4 32 $132.3 38 

Animal -oriented 25.1 51 1.2 57 51.8 38 

Plant-oriented 32.1 41 13.0 30 67.2 35 

Human-oriented 4.8 65 .1 25 4.4 41 

Other 3.7 60 .1 83 8.9 57 

Chemistry /Physics 15.0 36 1 .8 41 11.8 37 

Engineering 5.5 22 1.5 17 5.3 23 

Environmental Sciences ... . 1.0 34 1.7 20 2.6 33 

Mathematics/Statistics 2 22 .6 50 a.1 23 1.1 33 

Economics 3 15 .4 9 $3.1 15 ''.I 7 5.4 19 

Other 1 30 .1 10 .1 10 ^A 71 3.6 12 

Agency Totals $87.8 41 $20.4 28 $3.2 15 ^.1 23 $162.1 34 

^.7 15 


Nationa 


/ 


Total 


Funds 


PCT 


$212.3 


39 


78.1 


42 


112.3 


36 


9.2 


50 


12.7 


58 


28.6 


37 


12.3 


22 


2.0 


33 


2.0 


33 


9.3 


16 


4.1 


13 


$273.9 


35 


^Funds in millions of dollars; PCT = percent of total funds for each science 
category expended for basic research. Figures may not add to totals iDecause 
of rounding 

Source USDA 


^"States" includes Slate Agricultural Experiment Stations. State Forestry 
Organizations. Colleges of 1890, and the Tuskegee Institute. 
■'Superscript "a" equals SRS only; superscript "b" equals FCS only 


are applicable to the control of human virus infec- 
tions as well as animal virus infections. 

Bachrach. H. L. and J. Polatnick. 1967. Amino acid composi- 
tion of three immunological types of foot-and-mouth disease 
virus (.^1765). Proc. Society of Experimental Biol, and Medi- 
cine, 124:465-469. 

Bachrach. H. L., D. M. Moore, P. D. McKercher and J. Po- 
latnick. 1975. Immune and antibody responses to an isolated 
capsid protein of foot-and-mouth disease viruses. Jour of 
Immunology, 115: 16.^6-1641. 

Malheka, H.D. and H. L. Bachrach. 1975. N-terminal amino 
acid sequences in the major capsid proteins of foot-and-mouth 
disease virus types A, O, and C. Jour, of Virol., 16:1248-125.^. 

Okazaki, W., H. G. Purchase and B. R. Burmester. 1970. 
Protection against Marek's disease by vaccination with a her- 
pesvirus of turkeys. Avian Dis., 14:41.^-429. 

Purchase, H. G., R. L. Witter and W. Ikazaki. 1971. Vaccina- 
tion against Marek's disease. Perspectives in Virology, 7:91- 
110. Academic Press, Inc. New York, 

Improvement of Reproductive Performance in 
Animals 

A successful procedure has been developed for 
deep-freezing of swine semen allowing artificial 
insemination to aid the swine industry to make 
maximum use of superior sires. The process of 
freezing has been improved whereby the required 
number of sperm per insemination and the storage 
volume per insemination has been reduced. Also, 
a semen extender and a freezing method for poul- 

6 AGRICULTURE 


Table 4. Total actual and relative funding of basic agricultural 
research by performing organization, FY 1968, 1972, and 
1975. 


Basic funds 


1972 constant 


FY 


($ millions) 


% Basic 


(S millions!' 


ARS 


68 


$ 60.8 


43 


$ 78.6 


72 


76.9 


41 


76.9 


75 


87.8 


41 


68.4 


ERS 


68 


3.8 


29 


4.9 


72 


4.6 


27 


4.6 


75 


3.2 


15 


2.5 


FS 


68 


12.7 


33 


16.4 


72 


16.8 


30 


16.8 


75 


20.4 


28 


15.9 


STATES 


68 


72.2 


29 


93.3 


72 


118.3 


33 


118.3 


75 


162.1 


34 


126.3 


NATIONAL 


TOTAL= 


68 


150.2 


34 


194.1 


72 


216.9 


35 


216.9 


75 


273.9 


35 


213.5 


' Adjusted data (1972 = 100) for Government purchases of 
goods and services, in Table B-3, "Implicit Price Deflators for 
Gross National Product 1929-76." Economic Report of the 
President transmitted to the Congress January 1977. 

^National Total includes a small amount of basic research 
per formed by Farmer Cooperative Ssrvice and Statistical 
Reporting Service, USDA. Total research performed by these 
Agencies is very small. 

Source: USDA. 


try semen is now available commercially. 

Significant advancement has been recently 
made in the area of pregnancy testing in sheep. 
Research led to development of techniques to 
determine fetal numbers in pregnant ewes, a very 
important development for the sheep industry 
because twinbearing ewes can now be identified 
for selection purposes. 

Hutlet. C. V. 1972. A rectal-abdominal palpatation technique 
for diagnosing pregnancy in the ewe. Jour, of Animal Sci., 
\S:814-819. 

Hutlet. C. V. 1973. Determining fetal numbers in pregnant 
ewes. Jour. Animal Sci., .■?6:32.'i-.330. 

Hutlet, C. V. and W. L. Shupe. 1973. Predicting multiple 
births in sheep by rectal-abdominal palpatation. Proc. Western 
Section American Soc. of An Sci., 24:237. 

Mengeling, W. L., R. C. Cutlip, R. A. Wilson, J. B. Parks and 
R. t,. Marshall. 1975. Fetal mummification associated with 
porcine parvovirus infection. Jour. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc, 
166:993-995. 

Mengeling, W. I., and R. C. Cutlip. 1976. Reproductive diseas- 
es experimentally induced by exposing pregnant gilts to por- 
cine parvovirus. Amer. Jour. Vet. Research, 37: 1393-1400. 

Pursel, V. G. and L. A. Johnson. 1971. Procedure for the 
preservation of boar spermatozoa by freezing. ARS: 44-227. 

Pursel, V. G. and I.. A. Johnson. 1971. Fertilizing capacity of 
frozen boar spermatozoa. Jour. Animal Sci., 33:1162 (Ab- 
stract). 


Discovery of Important Disease-Causing 
Enteric Viruses in Cattle and Swine 

Utilizing germ-free animals, new viral agents 
were identified that cause major losses from en- 
teric disease in cattle and swine. The causative 
agents have been classified as belonging to the 
parvo, rota, reo, and corona classes of viruses. 
Association of the viral agents with the enteric 
diseases and their classification became feasible 
through the simultaneous development by the 
same investigators of new laboratory procedures 
that utilize fluorescent antibody techniques with 
the aid of electron and immune-electronmi- 
croscopy. 

Enteric diseases cause a high proportion of all 
mortality and morbidity in young calves and pigs. 
Annual losses in swine are estimated to cost the 
industry $150,000,000, and calf losses equal nearly 
10 percent of all calves born. Basic information 
on these enteric viruses will permit the develop- 
ment of vaccines and preventative practices 
which will be of great economic importance to the 
livestock industry. The interrelations between 
animal and human disease are shown by studies 
that indicate that an isolated rotavirus from hu- 
man infants was capable of causing enteritis in 
germ-free pigs. The reovirus-like agent has also 


been shown to be ubiquitous in nature causing 
diarrhea in infants, calves, pigs, monkeys, and 
mice. 

Bohl, E. H. and L. J. Saif. 1975. Passive immunity in trans- 
missable gastroenteritis of swine: Immunoglobulin characteris- 
tics of antibodies in milk after innoculating virus by different 
routes. Infection and Immunity 11:23. 

Mebus, C. A., R. G. White. E. I,. Stair. M. B. Rhodes and M. 
J. Twiehaus. 1972. Neonatal calf diarrhea: Results of a field 
trial using a reo-like virus vaccine. Vet. Med. Small An. Clinic 

67:173. 

Mengeling. W. L.. Porcine parvovirus; Properties and preva- 
lence of the strain isolated in the LI.S. 1972. Amer. Vet. Res. 
33:2239-2248. 

Saif, L. J., E. H. Bohl, E. M. Kohler and J. H. Hughes. 1977. 
Immuneelectronmicroscopy of transmissable gastroenteritis vi- 
rus and rotavirus of swine. Am. J. Vet. Res. .38:13. 

Sharpee, R. L., C. A. Mebus and E. P. Bass. 1976. Character- 
ization of a calf diarrheal coronavirus. Am. J. Vet. Res. 
37:1031. 

Torres- Medina, A., R. G. WyatI, C. A. Mebus, N. R. Under- 
dahl and A. Z. Kapikian. 1976. Diarrhea caused in gnotobiotic 
piglets by the reovirus-like agent of human infantile gastroen- 
teritis. J. of Infect. Dis. 133:22. 

Determination of the Requirements and 
Interrelationships of Amino Acids for Swine 
and Poultry 

Requirements for the indispensable amino acids 
for growth, gestation, and lactation in swine, and 
for growth and egg production in poultry have 
been determined. Significant interrelationships 
between amino acids have been shown to influ- 
ence quantitative needs. To aid in the application 
of this knowledge the relative values of the differ- 
ent commercially available isomers have been es- 
tablished. 

The protein requirement for all functions in 
domestic animals is, in reality, the need for the 
proper quantity and ratio of amino acids. World- 
wide protein is both the most limiting and expen- 
sive ingredient as a constituent of animal diets. As 
knowledge of amino acid requirements is further 
established, protein intake can be reduced to the 
level at which only required levels of amino acids 
are furnished. Such information is having the 
effect of greatly extending world protein supplies. 

Baker, D. H. N. K. Allen, J. BoomgaardI, G. Graver and H. 
W. Norton. 1971. Quantitative aspects of D- and L- trypto- 
phan utilization by the young pig. J. Anim. .Sci. 33:42. 

Featherston, W. R. and G. W. Horn. 1974. Studies on the util- 
ization of the alpha-hydroxy acid of methionine by chicks fed 
crystalline amino acid diets. Poul. Sci. 53:680. 

Lewis, A. J. and V. C. Speer. 1975. Threonine requirement of 
the lactating sow. J. Anim. Sci. 40:892. 

Maruyama, K., A. E. Harper and M. L. Sunde. 1975. Effects 
of D-, DL- and L- glutamic acid on chicks. J. Nutr. 105:1012. 


AGRICULTURE 


Turtle. W. L. and S. L. Balloun. 1976. Leucine, isoleucine and 
valine interactions in turkey poults. Poult. Sci. 55:1737. 

Development and Transfer of Bacterial 
Resistance to Antimicrobial Compounds 

A portion of the enteric bacteria of all animals 
may possess resistance to antimicrobial drugs 
commonly used therapeutically and at low levels 
in the feed of animals for growth promotion and 
disease prevention. Research on these factors (R- 
factors) has shown that the incidence of R-factor 
containing bacteria increases when antibiotics are 
fed and that this resistance can be transferred 
from one strain of bacteria to another. The poten- 
tial threat to human and animal health from the 
acquisition of such resistance, and recognition of 
those practices related to the use of drugs that 
increase the population of resistant bacteria in our 
ecosystem, has developed into an important and 
urgent area of investigation. 

A complete understanding of the nature of bac- 
terial resistance to antimicrobial drugs is essential 
for the protection of animals and human health. If 
there is a greater risk of transfer of resistance to 
pathogenic bacteria from the common usage of 
antibiotics, the extent and nature of the risk must 
be established. A true appraisal of the R-factor 
pool in man and animals is badly needed to deter- 
mine when any further change occurs as well as 
the significance of such change to animal and 
human health and to medical practice. 

Gutzmann. F., H. Layton. K. Simkins and H. Jarolmen. 1975. 
Influence of antibiotic-supplemented feed on occurrence and 
persistence of salmonella typhimurium in experimentally in- 
fected swine. Am. i. Vet. Res. .17:649 

Lakhotia, R. I., and J. F. Stephens. 197.3 Incidence of drug 
resistance and R-factor among Salmonellae isolated from poul- 
try. Poult. Sci. 52:2266. 

Nivas, S. C, M. D. York and B. S. Pomeroy. 1976. In vitro 
and in vivo transfer of drug resistance for Salmonella and 
Escherichia coli strains in turkeys. .37:433. 

Walton. J. R. 1971. The public health implications of drug-re- 
sistant bacteria in farm animals. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1X2:358. 

Successful Transfer of Fertilized Ova in 
Cattle, Sheep, and Swine 

Blood hormone studies, together with surgical 
and laboratory procedures have established the 
necessary technology for successful transfer of 
fertilized ova in cattle and swine. Radio-immune 
assay techniques are being used to determine 
optimum timing with hormonal synchronization 
between donor and recipient females. Surgical 
procedures, techniques for superovulation, and 
laboratory requirements for storage and transport 
of ova have been developed. 

The new knowledge gained of ovarian function, 

8 AGRICULTURE 


requirements for in vitro culture of ova, and the 
technique for transfer of fertilized ova from don- 
or to recipient females in these species has greatly 
extended the potential genetic contribution of 
superior females. Both private and commercial 
applications of this technology are already appar- 
ent. Much of the basic information obtained is 
being applied to research on the potential for mul- 
tiple births in cattle and control of litter size in 
swine. The greater control over ovarian function 
now permitted, together with a better understand- 
ing of ovarian-uterine relationships, has also pro- 
vided a basis for further determining causes of 
prenatal death in both species. 

Dziuk. P. J. 1968. Egg transfer in cattle, sheep and pigs. The 
Mammalian Oviduct, edited by Hafez, E. S. F., and Blandau, 
R. J., p. 407. University of Chicago Press. 

Rowson. L. E. A.. R. A. Moor and R. A. S. Lawson. 1969. 
Fertility following egg transfer in the cow: effect of method, 
medium and synchronization of oestrus. J. Reprod. Fertil. 

18:517. 

Seidel, G. E., Jr., L. L. Larson. C. H. Spilman. J Hahn and 
R. H. Foote. 1971. Culture and transfer of calf ova. J. Dairy 
Sci. 54:923. 

Wright, R. W., P. T. Cupps, M. Drost and G. E. Bradford. 
1974. Culture of sheep and cow ova in various media. Proc. 
West. Section Am. Soc. An. Sci. 25:293. 


Discovery of Biological Function of Alpha- 
Lactalbumin 

Alpha-lactalbumin is a protein found in the 
skim milk of many species. It is one of two pro- 
teins required for the lactose synthetase enzyme, 
the enzyme responsible for biosynthesis of lactose 
in the mammary gland or in a test tube. This dis- 
covery resulted from efforts to purify the enzyme 
from bovine skim milk into two fractions A and 
B. There was no enzyme activity in either protein 
A or protein B tested separately, but the presence 
of both proteins A and B gave significant enzy- 
matic activity. Protein B was shown to be alpha- 
lactalbumin, a relatively low molecular-weight 
substance, and a subunit in the enzyme structure. 
This subunit has been considered a "specifier pro- 
tein," having the ability to change the catalytic 
activity of an existing protein, similar to other 
enzymes that have regulatory subunits. 

Current work on lipid metabolism, rather than 
the above carbohydrate metabolism, is finding the 
"specifier factor" to be a useful concept in syn- 
thesizing fats with liver microsomes. 

Brodbeck, U. and K. E. Ebner. 1%6. The subcellular distribu- 
tion of A and B proteins of lactose synthetase in bovine and 
rat mammary tissue. J. Biological Chemistry. 241. 5526-5532. 

i;hncr. K E. and Brodbeck, U. 1968. Biological role of alpha- 
lactalbumin. A review. J. Dairy Science, 51, 317-322. 


Ebner, K. E. 1970. A biological role for alpha-lactalbumin as a 
component of an enzyme requiring two proteins. Accounts of 
Chemical Research. 3:41-47. 

Tsai, C. M., N. Holmberg, and K. E. Ebner. 1970. Purification, 
stabilization, and properties of bovine mammary UDP-galac- 
tose 4-epimerase. Arch. Biochem. Biophys.. l'(6;2.33-244. 

Expansion and Improvement of Crop 
Germplasm Resources 

The USDA plant introduction system acquires 
7,500 to 10,000 new items annually. Sizeable ef- 
fort is involved in the characterization, documen- 
tation, and manipulation of the existing germ- 
plasm bases into forms that are useful in crop- 
breeding programs, the ultimate output of which 
are the more than 200 improved breeding lines 
and varieties released annually. Much basic effort 
is involved in characterizing physiological, bio- 
chemical, quality, and other attributes; determining 
the nature of resistance to pests and stresses; de- 
termining mechanisms of inheritance; and devis- 
ing improved genetic techniques and evaluation 
procedures to facilitate the germplasm effort. 

Bell, A. A 1976. Phytoalexin Production and Verticillium Wilt 
Resistance in Cotton. Phytopathology, 59:1119-1127. 

Buckner, R. C. L. P. Bush, and P. B. Burrus. 1973. Variabili- 
ty and hertiability of perloline in Festuca spp., Lolium spp.. 
and Lo/ium-Fes^ucca hybrids. Crop Sci. 13:666-669. 

Burk, L. G. 1967. An interspecific bridge-cross: Nicotiana 
Rapanda thru N. Sylvesths to N. Tobacum. Journal of Heredi- 
ty, 58:215-218. 

Burton, Glenn W. and Wayne W. Hanna. 1976. Ethidium 
bromide induced cytoplasmic male sterility in pearl millet. 
Crop Sci. 16:731-732. 

Bush. 1.. P., C. Streeter and R. C. Buckner. 1970. Inhibition 
of in vitro ruminal cellulose digestion by proline. Crop Sci. 
10:108-109. 

Deahl, K L., R. J. Young, and S. L. Sinden. 1973. A study of 
the relationship of late blight resistance to glycoalkaloid con- 
tent in 15 potato clones. American Potato Journal, 50: 248-253. 

Pick, G. N., D. E. Zimmer, J. Dominguez Gimenez, and D. A. 
Rehder. 1974. Fertility restoration and variability for plant and 
seed characteristics in wild sunflowers. Proc. Sixth Inter. Sun- 
flower Conf. 333-337, Bucharest, Romania. July 22-24. 

Pick, G. N. and D. E. Zimmer. 1975. Linkage tests among 
genes for six qualitative characters in sunflowers. Crop Sci., 

15:777-779. 

Gimenez, Juan Dominguez and Gerhardt N. Pick. 1975. Fertil- 
ity restoration of male-sterile cytoplasm in wild sunflowers. 
Crop Sci. 15:724-726. 

Howell. R. K., T. E. Devine. and C H. Hanson. 1971. Resist- 
ance of selected alfalfa strains to ozone. Crop. Sci., 11:114- 
115. 

Jenkins, J. J. and W. L. Parrott. 1971. Effectiveness of Frego 
Bract as a Boll Weevil resistance character in cotton. Crop. 
Sci. 11:739-743. 


Legg, Paul D., James F. Chaplin, and Glenn B. Collins. 1969. 
Inheritance of percent total alkaloids in Nicotiana Tobacum L. 
Journal of Heredity, 60:213-217, 1969. 

Perdue, R. E., L. A. Spetzman and R. G. Powell. 1970. Ce- 
phalotaxus - source of Harringtonine, a promising new anti- 
cancer alkaloid. Amer. Horticultural Magazine 49:19-22. 

Snyder, F. W. and G. E. Carlson. 1976. Selecting for genetic 
control of photosynthate partitioning in sugarbeet. Agronomy 
Abstracts p. 77. 

-Stipanivic R. D.. A. A. Bell, M. E. Mace, and C. R. Howell. 
1975. Antimicrobilia Terpenoids of Gossypium: 6-methoxy- 
gossypol and 6,6-dimethoxygossypol. Phytochemistry 14:1077- 
1081. 

Weibe, G. A. and R. T. Ramage. 1969. Hybrid barley. Second 
Inter Genetics Symp. Barley Genetics 11:287-291. 

Photosynthesis 

All research on photosynthesis is necessarily 
mission-oriented, since this process accounts di- 
rectly or indirectly for all food production. Signif- 
icant basic research contributions in the past dec- 
ade have increased our understanding of impor- 
tant enzymatic reactions, biochemical mecha- 
nisms, interactions with respiration, the signifi- 
cance of environmental and chemical variables, 
energy balances, and canopy efficiencies under 
field conditions. Computer models of photosyn- 
thesis and respiration are now facilitating the 
identification of important gaps in knowledge and 
the evaluation of stochastic variables. 

Allen, L. H., Jr. 1974. Photosynthesis in plant canopies. Effect 
of light response curves and radiation source geometry. Photo- 
synthetica 8:29-40. 

Aston, A. R., R. J. Millington and D. B. Peters. 1973. The 
energy balance of leaves. UNESCO Symp. on Plant Response 
to Climatic Factors, Uppsala, Sweden Proc, pp. 37-44. 

Baker, D. N., J. D. Hesketh, and W. G. Duncan. 1972. Simu- 
lation of growth and yield in cotton: I. Gross photosynthesis, 
respiration and growth. Crop Sci. 12:431-435. 

Barnes, D. K.. R. B. Pearce, G. E. Carlson, R. H. Hart, and 
C. H. Hanson. 1969. Specific leaf weight differences in alfalfa 
associated with variety and plant age. Crop Sci. 9:421-423. 

Chatterton, N. J. 1972. Product Inhibition of photosynthesis in 
alfalfa leaves as related to specific leaf weight. Crop Sci. 
13:284-285. 

Chollet, R., and W. L. Ogren. 1973. Photosynthetic carbon 
metabolism in isolated maize bundle sheath strands. Plant 
Physiol. 51:787-792. 

Hesketh, J. D., J. M. McKinion, J. W. Jones, D. N. Baker, H. 
C. Lane, A. C. Thompson, and R. F. Colwick. 1974. Problems 
In building computer models for photosynthesis and respira- 
tion. Proc. Environmental and Biological Control of Photosyn- 
thesis Symposium, Hasselt, Belgium. Aug. 26-30. pp. 53-60. 

Irvine, J. E. 1972. Canopy characters and their relation to the 
yield of sugarcane varieties. Proc. ASSCT 2:73-75. 

l.aing, W. A., W. L. Ogren and R. H. Hageman. 1974. Regula- 
tions of soybean net photosynthetic COi fixation by the inter- 


AGRICULTURE 


action of CO3, Oj. and ribulose-l ,5-diphosphale carboxy- 
lase. Plant Physiol. 

Laing. W. A.. W. L. Ogren and R. H. Hageman. 1^75. Bicar- 
bonate stabilization of ribulose-l,. ''-diphosphate carboxylase. 
Biochemistry 14:2269-227.S. 

Moreland, D. E., and J. L Hilton. 1976. Actions on photosyn- 
thetic systems. In: Herbicides: Physiology. Biochemistry. 
Ecology. Vol. 1. Academic Press. London, pp. 493-52.1. 

Peters. D. V., B. F. Clough. R. A. Carves, and G. R. Stahl 
1974. Measurement of dark respiration evaporation, and pho- 
tosynthesis in field plots. Agron. J. .3:460-462. 

Potter. J. R. and J. S. Boyer. 197.3. Chloroplast response to 
low leaf water potentials. Role of osmotic potentials. Plant 
Physiol. 51:993-997. 

Nitrogen Fixation 

Basic research has contributed new knowledge 
on the genetics of rhizobium (the best known of 
the nitrogen-fixing microorganisms), on toxic 
substances produced by this bacterium, and on 
environmental factors controlling nitrogen-fixing 
processes. Other advances have been made in our 
knowledge of the nitrogen cycle and plant absorp- 
tion and utilization of nitrogen in its various 
forms. Since nitrogen makes up a major part of 
the fertilizers used in crop production, under- 
standing these processes is critical to development 
of sound fertilizer conservation practices. Petro- 
leum based fertilizers currently account for 35 
percent of the total energy used in crop produc- 
tion. 

Hutchison. G. L. R. J. Millington. and D. B. Peters. 1972. 
Atmospheric ammonia: Absorption by plant leaves. Science 

175:771-772. 

Kissel. D. E., J. T. Ritchie, and C. W. Richardson. 1975. A 
stress day concept to improve nitrogen fertilizer utilization: 
Dryland grain sorghum in the Texas blackland prairie. Texas 
Agr. Expt. .Sta. Mis. Pub. 1201. 15pp. 

Kuykendall. D. 1977. Introduction of potential sex factors into 
Rhizobium japonicum. Proc. Conf. on genetic engineering for 
nitrogen fixation. Brookhaven. (in press). 

Owens, L., J. Thompson. R. G. Pitcher, and T. Williams. 1972. 
Structure of rhizobitoxine. an antimetabolic enol-ether amino 
acid from Rhizobium japonicum. Chem. Communications, p. 
714. 

Owens, I.. Rhizobitoxine as a postemergent herbicide. U.S. 
Patent 3.672. 862. June 27. 1972. 

Porter. 1.. K.. F. G. Viets. Jr.. and G. L. Hutchison. 1972. Air 
containing nitrogen- 15 ammonia: Foliar absorption by corn 
seedlings. Science 175:759-761. 

Purvis, A. C, D. B. Peters, and R. H. Hageman. 1974. Effect 
of carbon dioxide on nitrate accumulation and nitrate reduc- 
tase induction in corn seedlings. Plant Physiol. 53:934-941. 

Sloger. C. and B. E. Caldwell. 1970. Seasonal pattern of ni- 
trogen fixation in soybean. Abstr.. Northeast Amer. Soc. 
Agron. Meetings, p. 7, 


Vigue, J.T.. J. E. Harper, and D. B. Peters. 1977. Nodulation 
of soybeans grown hydroponically ou urea. Crop Sci. (in 
press). 

Weber. D. F.. and V. L. Miller. 1972. Effect of soil tempera- 
tures on the distribution of Rhizobium japonicum serogroups 
in soybean nodules. Agron. J. 64:796-798. 

Environmental Stress, Remote Sensing, and 
Crop Prediction 

Increased knowledge of the physiological and 
biochemical effects of a large number of environ- 
mental stress factors and development of effective 
remote sensing technology contribute to develop- 
ment of better protection methodology and model- 
ing for predictive purposes. 

Bartholic. J. F.. L. N. Namken, and C, L. Wiegand. 1972. 
Aerial thermal scanner to determine temperatures of soils and 
of crop canopies differing in water stress. Agron. J. 64:603- 
608. 

Flemming. A. L.. and C. D. Foy. 1968. Root structure reflects 
differential aluminum tolerance in wheal varieties. Agron. J 
60:172-176. 

Foy. C. D. 1976. Differential aluminum and manganese toler- 
ances of plant species and varieties in acid soils. Ciencia E 
Cultura 28:150-115. 

Gausman. H. W.. A. H. Gerbermann. and C 1. Wiegand. 

1975. Use of ERTS-1 data to detect chlorotic grain sorghum. 
Photogram. Engin. and Remote Sensing 41:177-181 . 

Idso. S. B.. R. D. Jackson, and R. J. Reginato. 1977. Extend- 
ing the "degree day"" concept of plant phenological develop- 
ment to include water stress effects. J. Theoret. Biol, (in 
press). 

Idso. S. B.. R. D. Jackson, and R. J. Reginato. 1975. Detec- 
tion of soil moisture by remote surveillance. Amer. Sci. 
63:549-557. 

Maas. E. V. and Gen Ogata. 1972. Radial transport of sodium 
and chloride into tomato root xylem. Plant Physiol. 50:64-68. 

Maas. E. V., Gen Ogata, and M. J. Garber. 1972. Influence of 
salinity on Fe. Mn. and Zn uptake by plants. Agron. J. 64:793- 
795. 

Nieman, R. H. and L. L. Poulsen. 1971. Plant growth suppres- 
sion on saline media: Interactions with light. Bot. Gaz. 132-14- 
10. 

Shalhevet. J.. E. V. Maas. G. J. Hoffman, and Gen Ogata. 

1976. Salinity and the hydraulic conductance of roots. Physiol- 
ogia Plant. .38:224-232. 

Thomas. R. 0.. and M. W. Christiansen. 1971. Seed hydra- 
tion-chilling treatment effects on germination and subsequent 
growth and fruiting of cotton. Crop Sci. 11:454-456. 

Wiegand. C. L.. and L. J. Bartelli. 1971. Remote sensing for 
conservation and environmental planning. In: The shape of 
things to come. Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. Proc. 26:231-240. 

Weimberg. R. 1970. Enzyme levels in pea seedlings grown on 
highly salinized media. Plant Physiol. 46466-470. 

Weimberg, R. 1975. Effect of growth in highly salinized media 
on the enzymes of the photo-synthetic apparatus in pea seed- 
lings. Plant Physiol. 56:8-12. 


10 


AGRICULTURE 


Plant Growth Regulation 

Increased potential for practical control of plant 
growth and development with both naturally oc- 
curring and synthetic growth-regulation sub- 
stances has been achieved through discovery and 
evaluation of new chemical substances and deter- 
mination of their mechanism of action. Applica- 
tion of such technology is having significant im- 
pact on production practices, harvesting, and cur- 
ing of tobacco, and has created new potential uses 
for tobacco as a food. 

Cutler, H. G., and T. P. Gaines. 1971. Some preliminary ob- 
servations on greenhouse-grown tobacco treated with 2-chlo- 
roethylphosphoric acid al varying Ph's. Tobacco Science 171: 
43-45. 

Dropkin. V. H.. J. P. Helgeson. and C. P. Upper. 1969. Hy- 
persensitivity reaction of tomatoes resistant to Meloidgyne 
Incognita: Reversal by cytokinins. J. Nematology l:5-'5-61. 

King, E. E. 1973. Endopolymethylgalacturonase of boll weevil 
larvae: An initiator of cotton flower bud abscission. J. Insect 
Physiol. 19:2433-2437. 

Miles, J. D., G. L. StelTens, T. T. Gaines, and M. G. Stephen- 
son. 1972. Flue-cured tobacco "yellowed" with an ethylene 
releasing agent prior to harvest. Tobacco Science 16:71-74. 

Mitchell, J. W. and Luis E. Gregory. 1972. Enhancement of 
overall plant growth, a new response to brassins. Nature: New 
Biology 239:253-254. 

Mitchell, J. W., N. Mandava, J. F. Worley, J. R. Plimmer, 
and M. V. Smith. 1970. Brassins — A new family of plant hor- 
mones from rape pollen. Nature 225:1065-1066. 

Tso, T C and G. B. Gori. 1976. A new approach in tobacco 
production as food source and smoke material — Year 1976 and 
Year 2000, Proc, 6th International Tobacco Science Congress, 
Tokyo, Japan, (in press). 

Wells, J. M., R. G. Cutler, and R. J. Cole. 1976. Toxicity and 
plant growth regulator effects of cytochalasin H isolated from 
Phomopsis sp. Microbiol, 22:1137-1143. 


Biological Control of Insects 

Advances in the past decade in the discovery, 
identification, and synthesis in vitro of sex-stimu- 
lating and food-locating chemicals opens the pos- 
sibility of disrupting one or more vital processes 
in insects in locating specific food plants and in 
aggregating on susceptible plants. These advances 
provide an important new tool that permits man to 
manage insect populations onto sites or into situa- 
tions where they can be destroyed or fail to fulfill 
a vital stage in their life history. 

Studies of insect hormone systems have led to 
potential methods of disrupting growth and matu- 
ration of insects in nature by the application of 
small amounts of synthetic hormones. Hormones 
that disrupt the synthesis and breakdown of chitin 
in the insect cuticle are finding application both in 
agriculture and in controlling insects that attack 


man. The characterization of indigenous patho- 
gens of insects has provided better understanding 
of the mortality factors influencing insect popula- 
tions. Two classes of pathogens, bacteria and vi- 
ruses, are now commercially produced for insect 
control in agriculture, forestry, and urban envi- 
ronments. The pathogens do not interfere with, 
but augment other biological control methods. 
Studies on insect genetics have resulted in the 
potential use of the hybrid sterility principle 
where the mating of a harmless species with a 
pest like the tobacco budworm results in sterile 
male offspring. 

Dulmage, H. T. 1970. Insecticidal activity of HD-1, a new iso- 
late of Bacillus thuringiensis var. alesti. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 
15:232-239. 

Hawks, R. B. and A. Mayfield 1976. Host specificity and biol- 
ogy studies of Coleophora purthenica Meyrick (Lepidoptera: 
Coleophosidae), an insect for the biological control of Rus- 
sian thistle. Univ. of Idaho. Dept. Entomol., Anniversary Pub- 
lication No. 6:37-43. 

Hodgson, J. M., and N. E. Rees. 1976. Dispersal of Rhinocyl- 
lus Conicus for biological control of Musk thistle. Weed Sci- 
ence 24:. 59-62. 

Maddox, D. M., L. A. Andres, R. D. Hennessay, R. D. Black- 
burn, and N. R. Spencer. 1971. Insects to control alligator 
weed, an invader of aquatic ecosystems in the U.S. Bio- 
Science 21:985-993. 

Petersen, J. V., H. C. Chapman, and D. B. Woodward. 1967. 
Nematode of Aedes Solicitans (Walker) in Louisiana. Mosqui- 
to News. 27:493-498. 

Peterson, J. V. and O. R. Willis. 1972. Procedures for the 
Mass Rearing of a Mermithid Parasite of Mosquitoes. 
Mosquito News. 32:226-230. 

Proshold, P. I. and L. E. LaChance. 1974. Analysis of sterility 
in hybrids from interspecific crosses between Heliothis vires- 
censiind H. subflexa. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 67:445-449. 

Roelofs, W. L. 1967. Sex attractanis for insect control. Health 
News 44:409. 

Roelofs, W. L. and A. Comeau. 1968. Sex pheromone percep- 
tion. Nature 220:600-601. 

Summers, M. 1975 Baculoviruses for insect pest control: 
safety considerations. Amer. Soc. Microbiology, Washington, 
D. C. 188 pp. 


Plant Virology 

Techniques to isolate and identify viroids re- 
sulted in special gel electrophoresis and sedimen- 
tation techniques now universally utilized. Using 
these techniques, it was conclusively demonstrat- 
ed that infectious RNA (viroids) has a low mole- 
cular weight and that viroids therefore difl'er 
basically from conventional viruses. Development 
and improvements in freeze-etch and related tech- 
niques have made electron microscope assays of 
biological specimens so rapid the medical sci- 

AORICULTURE 1 1 


ences are utilizing the techniques for biopsy stud- 
ies while a patient is still on the operating table. 
Other research led to the discovery of a new class 
of organisms named spiroplasmas. It has been 
proven that spiroplasmas are the causal agents of 
several plant diseases including the corn stunt 
disease. Spiroplasmas can now be cultured and 
provide a means by which new vectors and un- 
known plant hosts can be identified. From basic 
RNA studies of the cucumber mosaic virus 
(CMV), a fifth RNA was recently discovered. 
When RNA 5 is present, CMV causes severe 
tomato necrosis. This discovery explains the 
cause of the disastrous loss of tomato production 
in France in 1972. 

Davis, R. E.. J. F. Worley, R. F. Whitcomb. T. Ishijima and 
R. L. Steere. 1972. Corn stunt disease. Science. 176:521-523. 

Davis. R. E. and J. F. Worley. 1973. Spiroplasma: motile, helical 
microorganism associated with corn stunt diseases. Phytopathol- 
ogy. 63:403-408. 

Diener. T. O. 1971. Potato spindle ■'Virus" IV. A replicating 
low molecular weight RNA. Virology. 45:41 1-428. 

Kaper, J. M., M. E. Tousignant and H. Lot. 1976. Plant virus: 
defective or satellite RNA.' Biochemical and Biophysical Re- 
search Communications. 72:1237-1243. 

Alleviation of Root Diseases by Antibiosis 

Many soil saprophytes have been found to 
produce antibiotic substances that suppress or de- 
stroy plant pathogens, and some saprophytes ac- 
tually parasitize or debilitate harmful organisms. 
The best possibility of alleviating plant diseases 
caused by soil inhabiting fungi, bacteria, and 
nematodes is to manage soils to increase the anti- 
biotic potential by commensal organisms. A rich 
field soil regularly contains up to 2 million orga- 
nisms per gram, each competing for space and 
nutrients and producing metabolic products that 
influence the welfare of neighboring organisms. 
The pattern for using this knowledge is being 
well-established by research now in progress. 
Additional research is needed on the biochemistry 
of antagonisms and on isolating, identifying, and 
learning how to use the inhibitory substances. 

Baker, K. F., et al. 1965. Ecology of soil-borne plant patho- 
gens. University of California Press. 

Baker, K. F. and R. J. Cook. 1974. Biological control of plant 
pathogens. W. H. Freeman and Co., ,San Francisco, CA. 433 
pp. 

Bruehl. G. W. ed. 1975. Biology and contriil of soil-borne 
plant pathogens. The American Phytopath. Soc. 

Plant Breeding for Improved Productivity and 
Resistance to Pests 

Research on photorespiration has shown that 
plants differ drastically in their efficiency in con- 

1 2 AGRICULTURE 


verting carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and 
other storage products. Plants that undergo photo- 
synthesis through 4-carbon chains vs. 3-carbon 
chains have been found twice as eflfective in uti- 
lizing carbon dioxide. Moreover, photorespiration 
inhibitors or somatic hybridization with plants of 
low photorespiration can enhance water utiliza- 
tion. In addition, recent research has indicated the 
potential for improved nutritional quality to ani- 
mals. A single mutant gene in forage sorghum has 
been discovered to increase the rate of digestion 
of forage sorghum by ruminant animals. [Discov- 
ery of opaque-2 and fiour-2 genes in maize has 
increased the amino acid balance for nonruminant 
animals. Gel electrophoresis methodology has 
permitted fingerprinting and classification of pro- 
teins for rapid screening by plant breeders. 

Much early research on breeding for pest resist- 
ance gave ephemeral results due to the pest's abil- 
ity to produce new races. Recent research resort- 
ing to multigenic or broad forms of resistance 
geometrically reduces the chances of the pest to 
readjust according to the number of genes in- 
volved. Using this approach, resistance to late 
blight fungus in potatoes and black stem rust in 
wheat has been stabilized. It has also been discov- 
ered that certain cultivars produce fungicidal, bac- 
teriostatic, or insecticidal substances when invad- 
ed by plant pests. Absence of precursors or inade- 
quate enzyme systems for generation of these 
substances leaves the plant susceptible and vul- 
nerable to attack. 

Cummins, D. G., J. W. Dobson. Jr. 1972. Digestibility of 
bloom and bloomless sorghum leaves as determined by a mod- 
ified in Wfro technique. Agron. J. 64:682-683. 

Jackson, W. A. and R. J. Volk. 1970. Annual Review Plant 
Physiology. 21:385-432. 

Mertz, E.T., L.S. Bates, and O. E. Nelson. 1964. Mutant gene 
that changes protein composition and increases lysine content 
of maize endosperm. Science. 145:279-280. 

Savory, C. D. 1976. Peanut (Arachis hypogals L.) seed protein 
characterization and genotype sample classification using poly- 
acrylamide gel electrophoresis. Biochemical and Biophysical 
Research Communication 68:886-894. 

Zelitch, I. 1971. Photo Respiration Review. Academic Press. 


Mathematical Modeling of Plant Growth and 
Pest Development 

Mathematical modeling techniques are simulat- 
ing plant growth as affected by known input fac- 
tors such as soil and environment temperatures, 
radiation, soil moisture, relative humidity of the 
air, nutrient availability, cultural practices, photo- 
synthetic activity, etc. Various stages of plant 
development may be predicted with anticipated 
events. Pest population development can also be 


predicted by similar use of modeling techniques 
and the impact upon plant development predicted. 
With anticipated events, manageable inputs may 
be altered to improve production efficiency. 

The mathematical modeling techniques are 
providing a new systems management capability 
for more efficient production of crops. Optimum 
applications of fertilizer, water, and pesticides are 
being determined with more efficient utilization of 
energy and nutrients and maximized productivity. 

Hesketh. J. D., D. N. Baker, and W. G. Duncan. 1972. The 
simulation of growth and yield in cotton: II environmental 
control of morphogenesis. Crop Sci. 12:4.16-9. 

Hesketh. J. D.. J. M. McKinion, J. W. Jones, and D. N. Bak- 
er. 1974. Problems in modeling photosynthesis and respiration. 
Rnvironmental and biological control of photosynthesis. Bel- 
gium. Aug., 1974. 

Jones. J. W. and B. P. Verma. 1971. A digital simulation of 
the dynamic soil moisture status. Transactions ASAE 14 (4) 
h60-fi64. 

Jones, J. W.. J. D. Hesketh, E. J. Kamprath, H. D. Bowen. 
1974. Development of a nitrogen balance for cotton growth 
models: A first approximation. Crop Sci. l4:.'^41-6. 

McKinion, J. M., D N Baker. J. D. Hesketh. and J. W. 
Jones. I97.'i. SIMCOTT II: A simulation of cotton growth and 
yield. Computer simulation of a cotton production system, 
users manual. ARS-S-52. 

Wanjura, D. F., D. R. Buxton, and H. N. Stapleton. I97.V A 
model for describing cotton growth during emergence. Transac- 
tions ASAE, l6(2):227-2.tl. 

Storage Life of Food Crops 

Extending the storage life of food crops with 
retention of quality and nutritive characteristics 
requires understanding of both postharvest phy- 
siology and mechanisms by which biological dete- 
rioration occur. Refrigeration has been the classi- 
cal procedure for extending storage life: but other 
techniques such as manipulating and controlling 
the storage atmosphere, and hot-water and fungi- 
cide treatments are also proving effective. A new 
departure, still in the basic research stage, is the 
use of bioregulators. 

Abdul-Baki, A. A., and J. E. Baker. 197.1. Are changes in cel- 
lular organelles or membranes related to vigor loss in seeds? 
Seed Sci. and Tech., 1:89-125. 

Harvey, J. M., and Harris, C. M. 1975. Market quality in rela- 
tion to postharvest handling and shipping practices. ASHRAE 
J., 15:35 (abstract). 

Lieberman, M. 1975. Biosynthesis and regulatory control of 
ethylene in fruit ripening. Physiologia Vegetale, 13:489-499. 

Poling, S. M.. W. J. Howard, and H. Yokoyama. 1975. 
Structural activity relationship of chemical inducers of caro- 
tenoid biosynthesis. Phytochemistry 14:1933-1938. 

Smith, Jr., W. L. 1973. Quality maintenance of fruits and veg- 
etables. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Maritime Admin. Conf. 
Rpt. on refrigerated containers. 54-60. 


Fungal Genetics of Forest Tree Pathogens 

The objective of forest disease research is to 
modify host or pathogen as necessary to make 
them incompatible. Work with tree rusts has in- 
volved some of the major efforts to control dis- 
eases by modifying the genetic constituency of 
host or pathogen. Research on white pine blister 
rust, an introduced disease, has yielded informa- 
tion from which scientists have been able to struc- 
ture a program for controlling infections. Critical 
to the success of this program was a fundamental 
knowledge of fungus variation and variability of 
host resistance to infection. Research efforts have 
also yielded information that will permit limiting 
the effects of fusiform rust, the most serious dis- 
ease of southern pines. Recent research on patho- 
genic variability, when coupled with knowledge of 
host resistance, dictates the kind of program most 
appropriate for controllong this disease. 

Bingham, R. T., R. J. HofT, and G. I. McDonald. 1971. 
Disease resistance in trees. Ann. Rev. Phytopath. 9:433-452. 

Snow, G. A.. R. J. Dinus, and A. G. Kais. 1975. Variation in 
pathogenicity of diverse sources of Cronartium fusiformae on 
selected slash pine families. Phytopath. 65:170-175. 

Snow, G. A., R. J. Dinus, and C. H. Walkinshaw. 1976. In- 
crease in virulence of Cronartium fusiformae on resistant slash 
pine. Phytopath. 66:511-513. 

Wood Growth and Differentiation 

To understand the basic properties of wood 
formation there must be an in-depth understand- 
ing of the physiological processes that control the 
growth and differentiation of wood elements in 
forest trees. Research on hormonal regulation of 
wood has contributed to the clarification of early- 
wood-latewood transition, reaction wood forma- 
tion, branching angle, stem form, and taper. In 
the course of these investigations it was clearly 
demonstrated that the anatomical development 
was a limiting factor in both photosynthesis and 
the translocation of assimilates; thus, photosyn- 
thetic rates alone did not control growth rate or 
wood formation. 

Larson, P. R. 1969. Wood formation and the concept of wood 
quality Yale Univ. School of Forestry Bulletin No. 74:54p. 

Larson, P. R. 1976. Development and organization of the sec- 
ondary vessel system in Populus grandidentata. Amer. J. Bot. 
63:369-381. 

Nutrient Cycling in Forest Ecosystems 

Insects and fungi serve as vital links that contri- 
bute to diversity and long-term ecological devel- 
opment of forest communities. These agents are 
energy-efficient consumers contributing to the 
breakdown of organic matter, demise of aged and 
inefficient plants, hastening of forest succession, 

AGRICULTURE 1 3 


and circulation of vital mineral nutrients needed 
for plant growth. Insects are an energy and nu- 
trient-rich food source for the plethora of animals 
that feed on them. Research on energy flow or 
nutrient cycling can often supply tools to deter- 
mine when pest action has a net benefit on the 
forest and should not be controlled. 

Research on the forest tent caterpillar and other 
defoliating insects in the aspen-birch ecosystem of 
the Lake States has featured investigations into 
nutrient cycling and energy flow. This approach 
has brought new understanding of the roles of 
insects in forest communities. Of significance is 
the discovery that defoliating insects tend to op- 
timize plant productivity of particular sites over 
the long term. In general, site factors that ad- 
versely aff'ect tree hosts ultimately enhance the 
success of the infesting insects. This research 
promises to bring about a better understanding of 
the complex nutrient factors and interactions 
which are important for plant vigor and resistance 
to disease and which can signal the release of 
endemic insect populations into an epidemic 
phase. 

Mattson. W. J. and N. D. Addy. 1975. Phytophagous insects 
as regulators of forest primary production. Science. 190:515- 

522. 


Population Ecology of Forest Insects 

Population ecology research usually focuses on 
insects assumed or proven to be forest pests. This 
basic research involves: (I) Developing methods 
describing quantitatively the populations of target 
insects and their associates including natural 
enemies; (2) evaluating the roles of natural ene- 
mies — parasites, predators, pathogens — and other 
associates, physical factors, and host relationships 
in determining population changes; and (3) devel- 
oping methods to predict population changes in 
time and place and the effects of such changes on 
trees, stands, and forest ecosystems. Investiga- 
tions have included the mountain pine beetle, 
western pine beetle, spruce budworms, and forest 
tent caterpillar. As a result, a broad base of knowl- 
edge is available on a wide variety of forest pests. 
Technology was developed, applied, and improved 
for sampling insect populations to gather quantita- 
tive data both in research and operational control 
programs. Life history and population dynamics 
studies have identified key life stages most suscep- 
tible to direct control actions and pointed the way 
toward utilizing biological control agents — paras- 
ites, predators, pathogens — as well as conventional 
control approaches for forest resource protection. 

In recent years, eff'orts have intensified to de- 
velop pest management systems for the southern 

14 AGRICULTURE 


pine beetle, gypsy moth, and Douglas-fir tussock 
moth. New approaches are being used to develop 
models for pest populations, their efl'ects on for- 
est stand parameters, treatment techniques ap- 
plied singly and in combinations, and interacting 
social and economic criteria that influence pest 
and forest management decisions. 

Campbell, R. W. 1967. An analysis of numerical change in 
gypsy moth populations. Forest Sci. Monograph 15:3.^pp. 

Cole. W. E., G. D. Amman and C. E. Jensen. 1976. 
Mathematical models for the mountain pine beetle-lodgepole 
pine interaction. Environ. Entomol. 5:11-19. 

McKnight. M. E. 1971. Natural mortality of the western spruce 
hudwomi. Choristoneunt occidentials. in Colorado. USDA For- 
est Serv. Res. Paper RM-81. 12 p. Rocky Mt. Forest and 
Range Exp. Sta.. Fort Collins. Colorado. 

Witter. J. A.. W. J. Mattson, and H. M. Kulman. 1975. 
Numerical analysis of a forest tent caterpillar (l.epidoptera: 
Easiocampidae) outbreak in northern Minnesota. Can. Ento- 
mol, 107:837-854. 

Insect Pathology 

Forest insects pests are hosts of many patho- 
genic mircoorganisms, and disease is known to be 
an important factor in the population dynamics of 
some of the major pests which have been studied 
most intensively. Broad knowledge of the occur- 
rence and distribution of naturally occurring dis- 
eases, their effects on individuals and populations, 
and their modes of transmission and persistence 
in forest ecosystems suggests that certain patho- 
gens of forest insects can be manipulated by man. 
Our experience in developing microbial insecti- 
cides has shown the essentiality of basic biologi- 
cal, chemical, and physical characterization of 
specific pathogens to establish their environmental 
safety. With these prerequisites fulfilled, registra- 
tion of the Douglas-fir tussock moth nuclear poly- 
hedrosis virus (NPV) has been granted (the first 
forest insect virus approved for operational use) 
by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 
and registration of the gypsy moth NPV is expect- 
ed soon. Forest Service research on NPV's and 
on formulations of commercially available Bacil- 
lus thuringiensis has provided forest managers 
with biological control agents for two of the most 
important forest insect pests of North America. 
With protocols for registration now established, 
research should move aggressively to provide 
mote knowled;,e to support operational use of a 
variety of pathogens — viruses, bacteria, fungi, 
protozoa, nematodes — known to be effective 
against important forest insects. 

Campbell, R. W. and J. D. Podgwaite. 1971. The disease com- 
plex of the gypsy moth. J. Invertebrate Path, 18:101-107. 

Hughes. K. M. and R. B. Addison. 1970. Two nuclear poly- 
hedrosis viruses of the Douglas-fir tussock moth. J. Inverte- 
brate Path. 16:196-204. 


Massey. C.I.. 1474. Bioliigy and la\iinom\ of ncmalddc para- 
sites and associates of bark beetles in the Linited Slates. LISOA 
Agric. Handbook No. 446. 2.V^p. 

Maz/one. H. M. 1475. Analysis of serological studies on the 
nucleopolyhedrosis and granulosis (capsule) viruses of insects. 
Baculoviruses for Insect Pest Control: Safety Considerations. 
Am. Sue. Microbiology. 

W'ickni;ui, B. K., R. R. Mason and C. G. Thompson. 147.V 
Major outbreaks of the Douglas-fir tussock moth in Oregon 
and California. LISDA Forest Serv.. Pacific Northwest Forest 
and Range F\pl Sla. Gen Tech Rpt PNW-.s. IXp. 


Human Requirements for Nutrients 

Research is focusing on the development of 
recommendations for nutrient intake by humans 
and identification of forms of nutrients in foods 
that may be useful in meeting these requirements. 
Current lesearch encompasses proteins, lipids, 
carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins. Other 
areas of concentrated basic research include stud- 
ies on the influence of food fat on cholesterol lev- 
els: biologically etTective forms of iron, zinc, cop- 
per, and chromium; improving the basis for the 
recommended daily allowance (RDA) of nutrients, 
especially for vitamin C and B6; and determining 
the metabolic response to certain dietary fiber 
components. Another phase of this research is 
designed to devise quicker ways to assess the nu- 
tritional status of individuals. Examples of recent 
achievement include the identification of good 
iron availability in wheat and the isolation of an 
iron compound: identification of food sources of 
the chromium-containing "glucose tolerance fac- 
tor""; magnesium requirements of adolescent 
boys; and probable identification of nickel as an 
essential human nutrient. 

Hansen, D. I ,., J A Lorenzan. A. F. Morris. R. A. Ahrens. 
and J. E. Wilson, Jr. 1467. F:frect of fat intake and exercise on 
.serum cholesterol and body composition of rats. Amer. J. 
Physiol. 2I.'?:.'!47-3.'i2. 

lacono, J. M.. M. W. Marshall. R. M. Dougherty. J. F. Mach- 
in, J. J. Canary, and R. A. Binder. 1974. Influence of dietary 
fats on blood lipids, bUn)d pressure, and thrombotic indices in 
man. J. Amer. Oil Chcm. Soc. .'il^SZ.^A 

Leverlon. R. I. . J. M. l.eichsenring. H l.inkswiller, and F. J. 
Meyers. 1971. Magnesium requirements of young women re- 
ceiving controlled intake. J. Nutr. 74:33-3X. 

Lokken. D. M., E. S. Halas, and H. H. Sandslead. 197.3. Influ- 
ence of zinc deficiency on behavior. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and 

Med. 144:6X0-6X2. 

Mertz. W., H. W. Toepfer, E. E. Roginski. and M. M. Polan- 
sky. 1974. Present knowledge of the role of chromium. Fed. 
Proc. .3.3:227.'5-22XO. 

Nielsen, F. H., and D. A. Oelerich. 1974. Nickel, a new essen- 
tial trace element. Fed. Proc. 33:1767-1772. 


Nutritional Interrelationships in Lipid 
Metabolism in the Human 

Scientists have concentrated efforts for a num- 
ber of years on research to increase knowledge of 
interrelationships in lipid metabolism. Principal 
accomplishments reported include: (1) Relation- 
ships between dietary fat and lipids in blood and 
other tissues — a number of dietary factors other 
than lipids affected serum cholesterol levels. 
Among the factors are feeding frequency; low 
protein cereal diets; diets deficient in methionine, 
choline, or protein; and configuration of unsatur- 
ated lipids: (2) relationships between lipids and 
other substances in metabolism — identified were 
diets high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) 
or orotic acid, choline deficiency, and excessive 
dietary linoleic acid; (3) relationship between lipid 
utilization and physiological state, normal and 
abnormal — morphology and structural integrity of 
cardie tissue and PUFA, hepatic mitochondria! 
membranes and membrane-bound enzyme activi- 
ties with diets high in PUFA; excessive vitamin D 
intake and cell degeneration in smooth muscle. 

Kummerow. F. A., B. H. S Cho. W-Y-T. Huang. H. Imai, A. 
Kamison. M. J. Deutsch and W. M. Hooper. 1976. Additive 
risk factors in atherosclerosis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. (in press). 

l.eveille. G. A.. D. R. Romsos, Y. Y. Yeh, and E. K. O'Hea. 
1975. Lipid biosynthesis in the chick. A consideration of site 
of synthesis influence of diet and possible regulatory mechan- 
isms. Poultry Sci. 54:1075. 

l.yman. R. C, C. Ciotas. B Medwadowski and P. Miljanich. 
1975 Effect of low methionine, choline deficient diets upon 
major unsaturated phosphatidyl choline fractions of rat livers 
and plasma. Lipids 10:157. 

Patton. S. and T. W. Keenan. 1975. The milk fat globule 
membrane. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 415:273. 

Pringle. D. J., P. S. Wahdwa and C. E. Elson 1976. Influence 
of frequency of eating hypoenergetic diets in insulin response 
in women during weight reduction. Nutr. Reports Inter, (in 
press). 

Raphael. B. C, S. Patton and R. D. McCarthy. 1975. The serum 
lipoproteins as a source of milk cholesterol. FEBS Letter 58:47. 

Romos. Dale R. and Gilbert A. Leveille. 1975. Factors influ- 
encing adipose tissue response to food carbohydrates. Amer. 
Chem. Soc. 15:46. 

Stanek. K. M. and C Kies. 1975. The influence of three plant 
oils on blood serum phospholipids of adolescent boys. 
Department Report No. 14 Department of Food and Nutrition, 
University of Nebraska, Lincoln. 

Shrago, E.. A. Shug and C. Elson. 1976. Regulation of cell 
metabolism by mitochondrial transport systems. In: 
Gluconeogenesis. M. A. Melman and R. W. Hanson, eds. 
Academic Press, New York (in press). 

Tsai, A. C, D R Romsos and G. A. Leveille. 1975. Eff'ect of 
dietary cholesterol on hepatic lipogenesis and plasma insulin 
and free fatty acid levels in rats. J. Nutr. 105:939. 


AGRICULTURE 


15 


Requirements of Preteenage Girls for Specific 
Nutrients 

In research focused on nutritional requirements 
for preadolescent girls, two central human meta- 
bolic studies and companion animal studies were 
conducted. Major variables in the first study were 
level of protein and calcium intake. Variables in 
the second study were quality of protein and cal- 
cium levels. Results revealed important interrela- 
tionships among nutrients as influenced by the 
dietary variables of low quality, vegetable protein 
diets common to low income groups in the South, 
and calcium level. Diets that contained little ani- 
mal protein and whose major protein source came 
from cereals and beans produced an imbalance of 
essential amino acids, poor iron utilization, and 
altered excretion of certain vitamins. When the 
same diet also included a low intake of calcium, a 
negative phosphorus and magnesium balance de- 
veloped. The study also provided evidence that 
the present National Research Council's recom- 
mended daily allowance for protein for children 
are minimal and do not contain a sufficient margin 
of safety. 

Abernathy. R. P.. S. J. Ritchey. M. K. Korslund. J. C. Gor- 
man and H. O. Price. 1970. Nitrogen balance studies with chil- 
dren fed foods representing diets of low-income southern fam- 
ilies. Am. J. Clin. Nutrition 23:408. 

Abernathy, R. P. and S. J. Ritchey. 1"J72. Protein require- 
ments of preadolescent girls. .\m. J. Home Econ. 64:56(1972) 

Abernathy. R. P., S. J. Ritchey and J. C. Gorman. 1972. Lack 
of response to amino acid supplements by preadolescent girls. 
Am. J. Clin. Nutrition. 25:980. 

Abernathy, R. P.. S. J. Ritchey. M. K. Korslund, J. C. Gor- 
man and N. O. Price. Nitrogen retention by children fed diets 
typically consumed by low-income families. Fed. Proc. 27:679. 

Davis. E. Y. and Priscilla G. Day. 1972. Lipoprotein response 
of preadolescent girls fed low protein diets supplemented. 
Fed. Proc. 3!:70L 

Cabacungan. M. B., R. P. Abernathy, and S. J Ritchey. 1968. 
Effect of Phenylketonuria and level of protein intake on ratio of 
hydroxyproline to creatinine in urine of children. Va. J. Sci. 
19:165. 

Gorman, J. C, R. P. Abernathy and F. Schofield. 1969. The 
effect of levels of protein and calcium on fat absorption and 
serum lipids in preadolescent girls. Fed. Proc. 28:561. 

Gorman, J. C. S. J. Ritchey. R. P. Abernathy, M. K. Kor- 
slund. 1970. Influence of dietary protein and calcium on serum 
lipids of preadolescent girls. J. Am. Diet Assoc. 57:513. 

McCoy. Harriet, H. Lewis, and S. P. Yang. 1968. Serum pro- 
teins and tissue levels of vitamin A from rats fed two sources 
of protein. 1967. Fed. Proc. 26:636. 

Packett. L. V., Jr.. G. M. Serski, Huei-Yveh Lu Chien. 1972. 
Biochemical evaluation of nutritional status and protein quali- 
ty. Summary, l.X International Congress of Nutrition. Mexico 
City. Mexico. 


Packett. L. V. and C. E. Wells. 1973. Thiamine and riboflavin 
excretion as influenced by amino acids and calcium supple- 
mentation to low quality protein diets. Int. Kongress fur dia- 
tetik. Hanover. Germany. 

Price, N. O., B. E. Bunce, and R. W. Engle. 1970. Copper 
manganese and zinc balance in preadolescent girls. Am. J. 
Clin. Nutrition. 23:258. 

Price. N. O. and B. E. Bunce. 1972. Effect of nitrogen and 
calcium on balance of copper manganese and zinc in preado- 
lescent girls. Nutrition Reports International. 5:75. 

Spence, Nikki, P., R. P. Abernathy and S. J. Ritchey. Sweat 
nitrogen losses from preadolescent girls on low nitrogen in- 
takes. Fed. Proc. .30: (1971). 

Southern Regional Technical Committee. 1968. Metabolic pat- 
tern of preadolescent children. Description of the 1967 study. 
Southern Coop. Series Bulletin No. 129. Blacksburg, Va. 

Southern Regional Technical Committee. 1971. Metabolic pat- 
terns of preadolescent children. Description of 1970 study. 
Southern Coop. Series Bulletin No. 170. Blacksburg, Va., 
1971. 


Chemistry of Fructose 

In studies of the basic chemistry of fructose, it 
has been determined that a solution of fructose 
contains three isomers. Unlike glucose, the dis- 
tribution of the three isomers varies greatly with 
concentration and temperature. This variation 
complicates the use of fructose in food applica- 
tions. 

Basic studies have revealed the three isomers 
present in solution are the usual 6-membered ring 
form as found for crystalline fructose, and the two 
possible 5-membered ring forms. Study of the 
properties has shown that with increasing temper- 
ature, the concentration of the 5-membered ring 
forms increases and alters food properties such as 
water activity of the sugar and its sweetness and 
browning activity. By use of a gas chromato- 
graphic technique and computer analysis of the 
data, optical rotatory properties of all three fruc- 
tose isomers have been described. Basic data such 
as these make it possible to understand the chemi- 
cal behavior of fructose when added to food sys- 
tems. 

High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) promises in- 
dependence from foreign sources of sugar. Basic 
data on the properties of fructose will allow food 
manufacturers to control sweetness, nutritive val- 
ue, flavor, and energy values of HFCS-sweetened 
products over a broad spectrum, giving consum- 
ers greater discretion in choosing their food and 
beverage products. 

Lindley. M. G., Shallenberger, R. S. and R. L. Whistler. 1976. 
Comparison of the sweetness of glucose and fructose with 
their ring-thio analogs. J. Food Sci. 41:575-577. 


16 


AGRICULTURE 


Hybrid Graft Polymers and Plastics 

Basic studies on the free radical and other 
chemical combinations of organic and inorganic 
monomers with starch, leather, and other natural 
polymeric agricultural products have provided 
new classes of hybrid polymers, complex mole- 
cules, and plastics with a wide range and diversity 
of useful properties. Some of these unique materi- 
als have found commercial application. One such 
derivative, starch xanthate, can provide a means 
for slow release of pesticides, can be used to 
make powdered rubber by an energy-saving pro- 
cess, and one form of the substance can be used 
to reduce toxic levels of metals such as lead, zinc, 
silver, copper, and cadmium in industrial waste 
water. The combination of acrylonitrile and starch 
has produced a material — the so-called "super 
slurper" — that can fix large quantities of water in 
fluid-control applications, ranging from diapers and 
bandages to firefighting and sandy soils. Another 
grafting reaction, the combination of leather with a 
long chain amino acid, converts leather into a dry- 
cleanable product. 

Gugliemelli. I,. A., C. 1.. Swanson, and W. M. Doane 197.^. 
Kinetics of Grafting Acrylonitrile onto Starch. J. Polym. Sci. 
I 1(10): 2461-67. 

Weaver, M. O.. G. K. Fanta, and W. M. Doane. 1974. Highly 
Absorheni Starch-Base Polymer. Tech., Sym, Nonwoven 
Prodiicl Tech.. INDA. March ."^-6, 1974, pp 169-177. 

Precombustion Pyrolysis 

Studies of precombustion pyrolysis have de- 
fined the various chemical pathways by which 
heated wood degrades into simpler flammable and 
nonflammable substances before igniting. This 
knowledge has enabled chemists to devise more 
eflFective fire retardants by selecting chemicals 
that shift precombustion pyrolysis reactions in the 
direction of higher relative yields of nonflammable 
products. 

Broido, A., Y. Houminer, and S. Patai. 1966. Pyroiitic reac- 
tions of carbohydrates. Part I. Mularotation of molten d-glu- 
cose. J. Amer. Chem. Soc.,41 1-414. 

Broido, A. 1966. Thermogravimetric and differential thermal 
analysis of potassium bicarbonate contaminated cellulose 
Western Stales Section Combustion Institute. Denver, Colo. 

Briodo, A. and M. Weinstein, 1970. Thermogravimetric Analy- 
sis of Ammonia-Swelled Cellulose. Combustion Science and 
Technology, l::79-2S.'5. 

Broido, A., A. C. Javier-Son, and E. M. Barrall. II. 1973 
Molecular weight decrease in the early pyrolysis of crystalline 
and amorphous cellulose. J. Polymer Science, I7:.'t627-36.1-'^. 

Shafizadeh, F., G. D. McGinnis, R. A. Susott, and C. W. Phil- 
pot. 1970. Solidstate transition of 1,6-anhydro-B-D-glucopyra- 
nose. Carbohydrate Research, 13:184-186. 

Shafizadeh, F., G. D. McGinnis, R. A. Susott, and C. W. Phil- 


pot. 1970. Thcrniodynaniic properties of 1 .6-anhydrohexo- 
pyranose crystals. Carbohydrate Research. I.^i: I6.S-I78. 

Shafizadeh, F., C. W. Phllpot, and N. Ostojic, 1971. Thermal 
analysis of 1 .6-anhydro-B-D-glucopyranose. Carbohydrate 
Research. 16:279-287. 

Fire Spread 

Research on the mechanisms of fire spread in 
finely divided forest fuels led to the development 
of the first universally applicable prediction sys- 
tem for the rate of fire spread based on first princi- 
ples of heat transfer. This model forms the basic 
framework for the National Fire Danger Rating 
System to optimize the efl'ectiveness of the wild- 
lands firefighting efforts of Federal and State agen- 
cies, a $250 million annual cost to the public. 

Rothermel. R. C. 1972. A mathematical model for predicting 
lirespread in wildland fuels. USDA, Forest Service Research 
Paper. INT-ll.'i. 40p. 

Principles for Mechanically Harvesting Fruits 
and Vegetables 

Basic to the development of mechanized har- 
vest systems for fruits and vegetables has been 
the study and understanding of such areas as the 
biophysical properties of selected fruits and vege- 
tables, forces effecting detachment from tree or 
plant, detection of crop maturity, elTect of me- 
chanical forces on product quality, and chemicals 
to promote even ripening and reduce detachment 
forces. Such research has already led to the de- 
velopment of mechanical harvest systems for a 
number of fruit and vegetable crops. 

Coppock. G. E., S. I.. Hedden and H. Lenker. 1969. 
Biophysical properties of citrus fruit related to mechanical 
harvesting. Transactions ASAE. 12:561-563. 

Diener. R. G., J. H. Levin, and B. R. Tennes. 1968. 
Directional strength properties of cherry, apple and peach bark 
and the influence of limb mass and diameter on bark damage. 
Transactions ASAE. 12:788-791. 

Diener, R. G.. J. H. levin and W. A. Bradley. 1969. Seasonal 
changes in creep, relaxation, elasticity and damping of live 
apple-tree limbs (properties affecting mechanical harvesting). 
Transactions ASAE. 12:137-140. 

Fridley, R. B.. R. A. Bradley, J. W. Rumsey and P. A. Adri- 
an. 1968. Some aspects of elastic behavior of selected fruits. 
Transactions of the ASAE. 1 1:46-49. 

Gillespie, B. A.. T. Liang and A. L. Myers. 1975. Multiple 
spectral analysis for tree-shaker parameter optimization. 
Transactions of the ASAE. 18:227-2.30, 1975. 

Lenker. D. H. and S. L. Hedden. 1968. IJmb properties of 
citrus as criteria for tree-shaker design. Transactions ASAE. 
11:129-131. 

Lenker. D. H, and P. A. Adrian. 1971. Use of X-rays for se- 
lecting mature lettuce heads. Transactions of the ASAE. 
14:894-898, 1971. 

Marshall. D. E.. J. H Levin and B. Cargill. 1971. Properties 

AGRICULTURE 17 


of Concord grapes related to mechanical harvesting and han- 
dling. Transactions ASAE. 14:373-376. 

Tennes. B. R. J. H. Levin and B. A. Stout. 1964. Sweet cher- 
ry properties useful in harvesting and handling equipment de- 
sign. Transactions ASAE. 12:710-714. 

Control of Soil Structure 

The possibility of managing intensively cultivat- 
ed soils by application of polymer chemistry was 
demonstrated during the 1950's. A wider range of 
substances has become available, and there are 
now available materials that can stimulate seed- 
ling growth, reduce evaporative losses from soil, 
and ameliorate the severity of diseases. The po- 
tential exists for providing nitrogen and phosphor- 
us bound to these polymers in time-release mech- 
anisms that will improve their efficiency and 
reduce their propensity to be lost by leaching and 
surface erosion so as to cause eutrophication of 
nearby streams and lakes. 

Paris, D. F., G. Chester and O. N. Allen. 1966. Dynamics of 
Soil Aggregation. Advances in Agronomy 18:107-160. 

Water Quality 

Water standards identified in Section 208 of 
Public Law 92-500 require that increased empha- 
sis be given to the environmental aspects of 
chemical behavior. Basic research on erosion, 
hydrology, sedimentation, and environmental 
behavior of agricultural chemicals and sediments 
has generated a large volume of data in recent 
years. These data are now being brought together 
and structured into mathematical models for pre- 
dicting environmental transport of agricultural 
chemicals (pesticides and fertilizers) and sedi- 
ments from agricultural lands, mine spoils, and 
other disturbed areas. Such models have potential 
applications for improving production and man- 
agement practices for crops, as well as for meet- 
ing the mandates of Public Law 92-500. 

Committee of ARS scientists. B. A. Stewart, Coord. 1976. 
Control of water pollution from cropland. Vols. I and 11. 
ARS-H-.S-I and ARS-H-5-2. 298 p. 

Epstein, E.. G. B. Willson, W. D. Burge. D. C. Mullen, and 
N. K. Enkiri. 1976. A forced aeration system for composting 
wastewater sludge. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 48:688-694. 

Fouss. J. L. and R. C. Reeve. 1968. The laser in construction: 
"Lilc-I,inc" guides a pipeline. Laser Focus 4:31-34. 

Frere. M. H., C. A. Onstad. and H. N. Holtan. I97.S. 
ACTMO, An agricultural chemical transport model. U.S. 
Dept. Agr. ARS-H-3. 54 p 

Hutchison. G. L. and F. G. Viets, Jr. 1969. Nitrogen enrich- 
ment of surface water by absorption of ammonia volatilized 
from cattle feedlots. Science 166:514- .'^l.'i. 

Jackson. R. D.. R. J. Reginato. B. A. Kimball, and F. S. Na- 

18 AGRICULTURE 


kayama. 1974. Diurnal soil-water evaporation: Comparison of 
measured and calculated soil-water fluxes. Soil Sci. Soc. 
Amer. Proc. 38:861-866. 

Jensen, M. E., J. L. Wright, and B. J. Pratt. 1971. Estimating 
soil moisture depletion from climate, crop and soil data. 
Amer. Soc. Agr. Engin. Trans. 14:954-959. 

Kibler. D. F. and D. A. Woolhiser. 1970. The kinematic cas- 
cade as a hydrologic model. Colo. State U. Hydrol Paper No. 
39. 27 p. 

Meyer. L. D., W. H. Wischmeier, and W. H. Daniel. 1971. 
Erosion, runoff, and revegetation of denuded construction 
sites. Amer. Soc. Agr Engin. Trans. 14:138-141. 

Plimmer. J. R. and B. E. Hummer. 1969. Photolysis of amiben 
(3-aniino-2.5-dichlorobenzoic acid) and its methyl ester. 
J. Agr. FoodChem. 17:83. 

Plimmer. J. R., P. C. Kearney, D. D. Kaufman, and F. S. 
Guardia. 1967. Amitrole decomposition by free radical-gener- 
ating systems and by soils. J. Agr. Food Chem. 15:996. 

Rawlins, S. L. and P. A. C. Raats. 1975. Prospects for high- 
frequency irrigation. Science 188:604-610. 

van Schilfgaarde. J., L. Bernstein, J. D. Rhoades, and S. 1-. 
Rawlins. 1974. Irrigation management for salt control. Amer. 
Soc. Civ. Engin.. Irrig. & Drain. Div.J. 100:321-338. 

Singh, V. P. and D. A. Woolhiser. 1976. A nonlinear kinematic 
wave model for watershed surface runoff. J. Hydrol. 31:221- 
243. 

Smith, R. E. and D. A. Woolhiser. 1971. Mathematical simula- 
tion of infiltrating watersheds. Colo. State U. Hydrol Paper 

No. 47. 44 p. 

Wischmeier. W. H and J. V. Mannering. 1969. Relation of 
soil properties to its erodibility. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 
33:131-137. 

Woolhiser, D. A., R. E. Smith, and C. A. Hanson. 1970. 
Evapotranspiration components of watershed models for the 
Great Plains. Evapotranspiration in the Great Plains. Agr. 
Council Pub., pp. 1 1 1-1.36. 

Systemic Insecticides 

Recent innovations in molecular design of sys- 
temic insecticides have produced phloem mobile 
systemics (PMS) that pass through plant cell 
membranes, translocate with sugars, and concen- 
trate in living phloem tissue. Because many forest 
insects feed on rapidly growing phloem tissue 
where the PMS is concentrated, much-reduced 
dosages of toxicants are needed for effective pest 
control. The necessary chemical structure for 
phloem mobility has been determined, and the 
practical effectiveness of one PMS has been dem- 
onstrated experimentally against the western 
spruce budworm. The PMS principle lends itself 
to development of chemicals that are innocuous 
until converted by plants into toxicants and is 
adaptable to other pesticides, e.g., fungicides, 
herbicides, animal repellents. These chemicals 
ofTer promise of greater specificity toward target 
pests and reduced hazards to humans and other 


nontarget organisms in the environment. 

Crisp. C. E. 1972. The molecular design of systemic insecti- 
cides and organic functional groups in translocation. Tahori, 

A. S. (Ed) Proc. 2nd International lUPAC Congress of Pesti- 
cide Chemistry 1:211-264. 

Crisp. C. E.. Richmond. C. E., Gillette. N. L.. Look. M.. and 

B. A. Lucus. 1974. Phloem transport of biolahile acidic phos- 
phoramidothieate insecticides Larinkari. J. (Ed) Proc. .^rd In- 
ternational lUPAC Congress of Pesticide Chemistry pp. 1-31. 

Chemical Properties of Wood 

Basic research on the structures and reactions 
of the chemical components of wood has led to 
advances in the basic understanding of tree chem- 
istry and to assessments of the potential of wood 
as a source of industrial chemicals. Major ad- 
vances have been made in methods for characteriz- 
ing and quantifying the carbohydrate, lignin, oleo- 
resin, and extractive components in both hard- 
woods and softwoods. 

The complex stereochemistry of numerous 
wood carbohydrates has been described, as has 
the significance of this molecular geometrical ar- 
rangement to chemical reaction kinetics. New 
phenolic compounds in hardwood heartwood ex- 
tracts and new terpenoid components in pine bark 
extracts have been discovered and related to bio- 
genetic processes. Synthetic chemical cellstressing 
can increase yields of oleoresins from pines with- 
out altering the basic chemistry of oleoresin pro- 
duction by the cell. Basic data have been devel- 
oped on this biodegradation of lignocellulosic 
material by enzyme systems. This basic chemical 
research provides fundamental knowledge for 
understanding and improving pulping processes, 
preservative treatments, and chemical byproduct 
recovery from wood-processing plants. 

Feather. M. S. and J. P. Harris. 196,'i. The acid-catalyzed hy- 
drolysis of glycopyranoside. Journal of Organic Chemistry. 
30:153-157. 

Kirk. T. K. and L. F. Lorenz. 1973. Methoxyhydroquinone 
and intermediate of vanillale catabolism by polyporus di- 
chrous. American Society for Microbiology, pp. 173-175. 

Rowe. J. W. and J. K. Toda. 1969. Absolute configuration at 
C-4 of calamenene, 7-hydroxycalamenenal and the new natu- 
rally occurring sesquiterpene, 7-hydroxycalamenenal. 
Chemistry and Industry, pp. 922-923. 

Saeman. J. R.. W. E. Moore. R. L. Mitchell and M. A. Mil- 
lett. 1954. Techniques for the determination of pulp constitu- 
ents by quantitative paper chromatography. TAPPl. 
Vol:37:8:336-343. 

Seikel. M. K.. J. H. S. Chow and L. Feldman 1965. The Gly- 
coflavonoid pigments of vitex lucens wood. Purchased by 
FPL-USDA Supported in part by Research Grant G-9338 to 
Wellesley College NSF. 439-455. 


Wood Fiber Properties 

Basic research related to wood fiber products 
has advanced the fundamental understanding of 
the papermaking process, making possible signifi- 
cant improvements in paper products. Wet 
strength is an important paper property. Moisture 
breaks interfiber bonds, thereby weakening the 
paper. It has been found that swelling action of 
wet fibers is a more significant factor in breaking 
interfiber paper bonds than is the direct bond dis- 
placement of solvation action of the water on the 
fibers. A formaldehyde treatment can block the 
entry of water into wood fibers, preventing initial 
swelling and preventing the rupture of interfiber 
bonds. Similarly, it has been found that fiber 
movement due to shrinkage during drying also 
ruptures bonds. Physical restraint (pressing) can 
sufficiently reduce fiber movements during drying 
to enhance paper strength. 

Basic research studies in orienting or aligning 
fibers in paper, "unwinding" the individual wood 
fibers into their smaller microfibril structural com- 
ponents, also are pointing the way toward better 
paper materials. New discoveries in the field of 
ways to measure the basic physical properties of 
fibers and papers enable more rigorous engineering 
of paper product designs, making paper a vastly 
more useful and serviceable material of construc- 
tion. 

Byrd. V. L., V. C. Setterholm and J. F. Wichmann. 1975. 
Method for measuring the interlaminar shear properties of 
paper. TAPPl. Vol: 58; 3:139-149. 

Caulfield, D.F. and R. A. Steffes. 1969. Water-induced recrys- 
tallization of cellulose. TAPPl, Vol: 52: 7:1361-1366. 

McMillin. C. W. 1969. Aspects of fiber morphology affecting 
properties of handsheets made from loblolly pine refiner 
groundwood. Wood Science and Technology, Vol: 3. 139-149. 

Setterholm. V. C. and E. W. Kuenzi. 1970. Fiber orientation 
and degree of restraint during drying effect on tensile aniso- 
tropy of paper handsheets. TAPPl, Vol: 53. 10:1915-1920. 

Stockman, V. E. 1971. Effect of pulping on cellulose structure 
Part II. Fibrils contract longitudinally. TAPPl. Vol:54: 
12:2038-2045. 

Zinkel, D. F. and L. C. Zank. 1968. Separation of resin from 
fatty acid methyl ester by gel-permeating chromatography. 
Analytical Chemistry, Vol:40; 1144-1 146. 

Behavioral Chemicals for Insect Control 

Behavioral chemicals are substances of plant or 
animal origin that function in orientation of in- 
sects to their hosts or in communication between 
individual insects. Pheromones are natural prod- 
ucts of insects that function as chemical media- 
tors of behavior and cause insects to aggregate at 
a food source or attract the opposite sex for mat- 


AGRICULTURE 


19 


ing. Because insects are highly sensitive and 
strongly attracted to minute concentrations of 
pheromones, these materials are especially useful 
for population survey and offer a unique opportu- 
nity for safe chemical control without harm to the 
environment. 

Basic research on identification and synthesis of 
insect pheromones and rapid development of 
slow-release formulations and application tech- 
niques is stimulating the development of these 
substances for practical use. Pheromones are now 
available and in operational use for surveys, or 
are used in research for such major agricultural 
and forest insect pests as the European pine shoot 
moth, spruce budworm. Douglas-fir tussock moth, 
gypsy moth, southern pine beetle, smaller 
European elm bark beetle, boll weevil, Japanese 
beetle, tobacco budworm, house fly, mediterra- 
nean fruit fly, and the peach tree borer. 

Continued development of behavioral chemicals 
for population assessment and control is complex 
and dependent upon a broadened base of basic 
research. 

Bierl. B. A.. M. Beroz;i and C. W. Carlier. 1970. Potent sex 
attractant of the gypsv moth: Its isolation, identification and 
synthesis. Science. 170:87-89. 

Bowers. W. S. 1%X. Juvenile hormone: Activity of natural 
and synthetic synergists. Science. 161:89.'i-897. 

Daterman. G. E., L. J. Peterson. R. G. Robbins. L. L. Sower. 
G. D. Daves, Jr. and R. G. Smith. 1976. Laboratory and field 
bioassay of the Douglas-fir tussock moth pheromone. (z)-6- 
Heneicasen-1 lone. Envir. Entomol, 5: 1 187-1 190. 

Lewis, W. J.. R. L. Jones and A. N. Sparks. 1972. A host 
seeking stimulant for the egg parasite Tn'chogramma evanes- 
cent,: Its source and demonstration of its laboratory and field 
activity. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer.. 6.'i: 1087-1089. 

Lewis, W. J., A. N. Sparks and L. M. Kedlinger. 1971. Moth 
odor: A method of host finding by Trichogramma evanescens. 
J. Econ. Entomol. M:.S.S7-.S.<i8. 

Mitchell, E. R., M. Jacobson and A. J. Baumhover. 1975. He- 
/;o//>;s spp: Disruption of pheromonal communication with (2)- 
9-lctradecen-l-ol formate. Environ. Entomol. 4:.'i77-579. 

Orr, C. C, J. R. Abernathy and E. B. Hudspeth. 197.5. No- 
thanguina Phyllohia. a nematode parasite of silver leaf night- 
shade. Plant Disease Reporter, 59:416-418. 

Peance, G. T. et al. 1975. Chemical attractants in the smaller 
European elm bark beetle Scolytus mullistriatus (Coleptera: 
scolytidae). J. Chem. Ecol., 1:115-124. 

Smith. R. G., G. E. Daterman and G. D. Daves, Jr. 1975. 
Douglas-fir tussock moth: sex pheromone identification and 
synthesis. Science. l88:6.'!-64. 

Tumlinson. J. H.. D. D. Hardee, R. C. Gueldner, A. C. 
Thompson. P. A. Hedin and J. P. Minyard. 1969. Sex phero- 
mone produced by male boll weevil Science, 166:1010-1012. 

Tumlinson, J. H., D. E. Hendricks. E. R. Mitchell. R. E. 
Doolittle and M. M. Brennan. 1975. Isolation, identification 
and synthesis of sex pheromones of the tobacco budworm. J. 
Chem. Ecol., 1:203-214 

20 AGRICULTURE 


Wood. D. L. and W. D. Badard. 1977. The role of phero- 
mones in the population dynamics of the western pine beetle. 
Proc. XV International Congress of Entomol. In press. 

General Equilibrium Models 

A model of a national economy was produced 
in 197.^ that was a significant advance on the 
model developed by Nobel Prizel winner Wassily 
Leontief. Leontief's model was shown to be a 
limiting case of the linearized Walras-Cassel mo- 
del. The model was reformulated as a quadratic 
input-output model (QIO). For a 10 percent in- 
crease in government demand, the QIO model 
resulted in estimates of price inflation of 1.991 
percent with a corresponding increase in real final 
output of only 0. 146 percent with full employment 
of labor. In an unemployment situation, the rate 
of price inflation and growth of real final output 
were 0.783 percent and 1.312 percent respective- 
ly. For the conventional input-output model, all 
increased demand was reflected as growth in real 
final output of 1.972 percent. The new methodolo- 
gy is compatible with the simultaneous occurrence 
of increased price inflation and chronic high 
unemployment. 

Other researchers have modified this work and 
adapted it to forecasting work in the dairy sector. 
(One version is now in a computer at Washington, 
D.C, and another at Pennsylvania State Universi- 
ty, University Park, Pa.) 

Harrington. David Holman. 197.3. Quadratic Input-Clutpul 
Analysis: Methodology for Empirical General Equilibrium 
Models. Lafayette, Ind . Purdue LIniv . Ph D. Thesis. Dec. 
I97.V 194 pp. 

Spatial Equilibrium Analysis 

There has been growing interest among econo- 
mists in the explicit treatment of the spatial di- 
mension of market prices of agricultural products. 
National aggregates of supply and demand have 
been refined to reflect the peculiar characteristics 
of subregions of the country. These regional mea- 
sures have made it possible to conduct more sen- 
sitive analyses of alternative policy choices and 
market conditions than was possible with more 
highly aggregated relationships. 

A powerful algorithm has been developed for 
analyzing spatially oriented market systems. It is 
extremely flexible in accepting demand and supply 
functions and as a part of a more complex sys- 
tem. 

Allen. M. B. and A. D. Scale, Jr. I960. An evaluation of the 
competitive position of the cabbage industry in Mississippi. 
AEc Tech. Pub. No. 2, Miss. Agr. Exp. Sla.. State College 

Miss. 

King. Richard A. and Foo-Shiung Ho. 1972. Reactive pro- 
gramming: A market stimulating spatial equilibrium algorithm. 
HRR No. 21. Department of Economics. N. C. State Llniversi- 
ly, Raleigh, N. C 


O'Rourke, A., Desmond and Kenneth L. Casavant. 
Interregional and Intertemporal competition in fresh sweet 
cherries. College of Agr. Res. Center. Bui. 803, Washington 
State University. Pullman, Wash.. Nov. 1974. 

Riley, John B. 1974. A reactive programming model for the 
fluid milk industry. Res. Rept. P-697. Okla. Agr. Exp. Sta.. 
Stillwater, Oklahoma. 

Scale, A. D. and M. B. Allen. 1960. An evaluation of the 
competitive position of the snap bean industry in Mississippi 
and competing areas. AEc Tech. Pub. No. 3. Miss. Agr. Exp. 
Sta. College, Miss. December I960. 

Takayama, T. and G, G. Judge. 1963. Non-linear formulations 
of spatial equilibrium models and methods for obtaining solu- 
tions. AERR 66. Ill, Agr. Exp. Sta. in cooperation with Farm 
Econ. Res. Div.. ERS, USDA. Urbana. ill. 

Tramel, Thomas E. 1965. Reactive programming; An algorithm 
for solving spatial equilibrium problems. AEC Tech. Pub. No. 
9, Miss. Agr. Exp. Sta.. State College, Miss. 

Zusman. Pinhas. Abraham Melamed and Itzhak Kalzir. 1969. 
Possible trade and welfare effects of EEC tariff and "'refer- 
ence price" policy on the European-Mediterranean market for 
winter oranges. Giannini Foundation Monograph No 24, Cali- 
fornia Agr. Exp. Sta., Berkeley. 


Economics of Alternative Technologies and 
Management Systems in Livestock Production 

An economist working cooperatively with ani- 
mal .scientists is developing production functions 
for various classes of beef cattle to reflect a varie- 
ty of rations, management systems, and environ- 
mental conditions, and to identify efficient man- 
agement systems from calf production to delivery 
of carcass beef. The heat increment of a cattle 
ration can be a boon in cold weather or a burden 
in hot weather. A conceptual framework has been 
developed that provides the basis for: (I) Formu- 
lating beef rations with different quantities of heat 
increment relative to net energy and (2) ascertain- 
ing the differences in animal performance between 
rations with different relative amounts of heat in- 
crement under specified conditions of environ- 
mental stress. Procedures were also developed for 
formulating such rations. 

Brokken. Ray F. 1971. Programming models for use of the 
Lofgreen-Garrett net energy system in formulating rations for 
beef cattle. Jour. Animal Sci. 32:685-691. 

Brokken, Ray F. 1971. Formulating beef rations with varying 
levels of heat increment. Jour. Animal Sci. 32:692-703. 

Dinius, D. A., R. F. Brokken, K. P. Bovard, and T. S. Rum- 
sey. 1976. Feed intake and carcass composition of angus and 
santa gertrudis steers fed diets of varying energy concentra- 
tion. Jour. Animal Sci. 42:1089-1097. 

Short-run Pricing in Commodity Markets 

The strength of the U. S. economy derives 
from the ability of markets in the private sector to 
perform their classic intermediary role of allocat- 


ing resources, goods, and services among buyers 
and sellers. Recent rapid movements in commodi- 
ty prices emphasize the need for better under- 
standing of this pricing process. This need is all 
the more urgent because of heightened state trad- 
ing by major new customers such as the U.S.S.R. 
and the Peoples Republic of China. 

In appreciation of this need, economists had 
already set out to gain a better understanding of 
pricing in commodity markets. They examined the 
statistical properties of the distribution of daily 
closing futures prices for corn, wheat, soybeans, 
soybean oil, soybean meal, shell eggs, frozen 
pork bellies, live cattle, Maine potatoes, and sug- 
ar. They found that commodity futures prices do 
not adjust efficiently to new information in the 
short run, but exhibit more or less regular pat- 
terns which are not directly the result of shifts in 
supply and demand. This lack of serial independ- 
ence in price movements could be due to price 
manipulation by certain traders or the tendency 
for groups of traders, for whatever reason, to fol- 
low the same technical advice or the same charting 
procedures. 

Mann. Jitendar S.. and Richard G. Heifner. 1976. The distribu- 
tion of shortrun commodity price movements. U. S. Dept. of 
Agriculture, Econ. Res. Serv., Nat'l. Econ. Analy. Div., 
Tech. Bui. No. 1536. 68 pp. 

Paul, Allen B. 1976. Treatment of hedging in commodity mar- 
ket regulation. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Econ. Res. Serv.. 
Nat'l. Econ. Anal. Div., Tech. Bui. No. 15.38. 27 pp. 

Theory of Market Density and Plant Size and 
Location 

Important extensions of firm and industry theo- 
ry have been developed that make market density 
a determinant of the size and location of industry 
operating units or plants. The theoretical ap- 
proach for introducing market density into plant 
and industry models and analyses was developed 
in the late 1950's and early 1960's. Subsequently, 
others developed analytical techniques and further 
refined the theory. These advances have contrib- 
uted significantly to our understanding of the 
workings of the total economy and particularly to 
our understanding of the location of economic 
activities; for example, the necessary size and 
density of an industrial-urban complex in order to 
be economically viable and the social costs of 
zoning restrictions that limit the density and loca- 
tion of economic activities. 

Candler. Wilfred. James C. Snyder and William Faught. 1972. 
Concave programming applied to rice mill location. Amer. J. 
Agr. Econ. 52:126-130. 

Chern, Wen-Shyong, and Leo Polopolus. 1970. Discontinuous 
plant cost function and a modification of the Stollsteimer mo- 
del. Amer. J. Agr. Econ. 52:581-586. 


AGRICULTURE 


21 


French. B. C. 1%0. Some considerations in estimating assem- 
bly cost functions for agricultural processing operations. J, 
Farm Econ. 42:767-798. 

Fuller, S. W. and Monty Washburn. \')'!-i. Measurement and 
analysis of variable inputs used in the cotton ginning process. 
New Mexico Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Rep. 288. 

Henry, W. R. and J. A. Seagraves. 1960. Economic aspects of 
broiler production density. J. Farm Econ. 42:1-17. 

Hurt. Verner G.. and Thomas E. Tramel. 1965. Alternative 
formulations of the transshipment problem. J. Farm. Econ. 

47:763-773. 

King. Gordon A., and Samuel H. Logan. 1964. Optimum loca- 
tion, number and size of processing plants with raw product 
and final product shipments. J. Farm Econ. 46:94-108. 

Kloth. Donald W.. and Leo V. Blakely. 1971. Optimum dairy 
plant location with economics of size and market-share restric- 
tions. Amer. J. Agr. Econ. 53:461-466. 

Ladd. George W.. and M. Patrick Halvorson. 1970. Parametric 
solutions to the Stollsteimer model. Amer. J. Agr. Econ. 
52:578-580. 

Leath, Mack N., and James E. Martin. 1966. The transshipment 
problem v\ith inequality restraints. J. Farm. Econ. 48:894-908. 

Polopolus, Leo. 1965. A working model for plant numbers and 
locations. J. Farm Econ. 45:631-645. 

Toft, H. 1.. P. A. Cassidy, and W. O. McCarthy. 1970. Sensi- 
tivity testing and the plant location problem. Amer. J. Agr. 
Econ. 52:403-410. 

Warrach, Allan A., and Lehman B, Fletcher. 1970. Plant loca- 
tion model suboptimization for large problems. Amer. J. Agr. 
Econ. 52:587-590. 

Williamson, J. C. 1962. The equilibrium size of marketing 
plants in a spatial market. J, Farm Econ. 44:953-967. 


Water Rights in the West 

Arid or semiarid conditions in the Western 
States have led to modification and. in some in- 
stances, repudiation of the riparian water-rights 
doctrine regarding the use of watercourses. Most 
of these States have an alternative body of law — 
the appropriation doctrine — and a few also have 
Pueblo water rights. Hawaii has unique water 
rights. Still other water law doctrines apply to cer- 
tain ground water and other water sources. 

Researchers have completed a comparative 
analysis of the development and status of the 
constitutional provisions, statutes, reported court 
decisions, and some administrative regulations 
and policies regarding water rights laws in the 19 
Western States. 

This work is reported in three volumes. Volume 
1 deals with types and characteristics of water- 
courses, the property nature of water and water 
rights, water rights systems, and — in considerable 
detail — the nature, acquisition, and exercise of the 
appropriative water right. Volume II treats the 
riparian doctrine; the Pueblo water right; unique 

22 AGRICULTURE 


Hawaiian water rights; the protection, loss, adju- 
dication, and administration of water rights in 
watercourses; diffused surface waters and other 
waters at the surface; and ground water rights. 
Volume III includes chapters on Federal-State 
relations, interstate matters, international matters 
affecting water rights, and summaries of the water 
rights systems in each of the 19 Western States. 

Hutchins, Wells, A., Harold H. Ellis, and J. Peter Debraal. 
1976, Water rights laws in the nineteen western states. U.S. 
Dept. Agr , Vol 111 (in process). 

Resource Ownership and Property Rights 

Concepts of property rights and land use have 
been explicated by treating property rights as a 
communication system to be evaluated in terms of 
efficiency, equality, privacy, and freedom. 

Specifically, interrelations among persons with 
respect to property constitute an information sys- 
tem. Through this system are transmitted mes- 
sages such as recorded deeds, open and notorious 
possession, boundary markers, leases, oral decla- 
rations, and payment of taxes. The media are insti- 
tutions such as markets, courts, law enforcement, 
and other administrative agencies and law offices. 
To the extent that the structure of property insti- 
tution influences, maintains, and reinforces pro- 
perty rules and their interpretation, the medium 
does determine the message. 

Thus, information may be contained and gov- 
erned by rules of property. Patents, copyrights, 
and trademarks are forms of intellectual property 
which affect not only individual behavior, but the 
performance of an economy or society. Property, 
itself, can be viewed as an information system of 
right holders. So conceived, it is possible to cut 
across traditional legal compartments and examine 
the performance of the property system. The pa- 
tent system is supposed to encourage inventive- 
ness, but does it? The land title system is sup- 
posed to ensure efficient transfer and firm posses- 
sion of land, but does it? This research has impli- 
cations for the efficient utilization of resources in 
the production of food and fiber and for the ob- 
served inflation in the value of farmland. 

Wunderlich, Gene. 1972. Perspectives on property: An intro- 
duction, perspectives on property. Gene Wunderlich and W. L. 
Gibson, eds. Penn State Univ.. Inst, for Res. on land and water 
resources, Univers ty Park, Pa. pp. 1-8. 

Wunderlich, Gene. 1973. Public costs and land records. Amer. 
Univ. Law. Rev. 22:333--368. 

Wunderlich, Gene. 1974. Property rights and information. 
Annals of Amer, Acad, of Pol. and Soc. Sci. 412:80-96, 

Human Capital Investment Decisions 

Development of the concept of human capital 
has led to several promising lines of research by 


agricultural economists. Studies explain the time 
pattern of creation and utilization of a stock of 
human capital. This process requires that the 
investor divide his time among three activities — 
present production, adding to personal ca[ abilities 
for future production, and current consumption. 

Other studies have inquired into such things as 
the division of time between schooling (invest- 
ment) and production or the question of optimal 
length of schooling, the optimum mix of work and 
on-the-job training, and determinants of the time 
of retirement. Human capital stock models are 
being extended by examining the determinants of 
health. 

Johnson. Thomas. 1970. A model for returns from inveslment 
in human capital. Amer. Ec. Review. 60:546-60. 

Palmer. Steven Keith. 1976. An empirical investigation of the 
determinants of the length of full-time schooling Unpublished 
dissertation. N. C. State University. Raleigh. N.C. 

Sadik. AM. T. 1975. Investment, work and consumption: A life 
cycle model. Unpublished dissertation, N. C. State Univ.. 
Raleigh. N.C. 

Wallace. T. D. and L. A. Ihnen. 1975. Full-time schooling in 
life cycle models of human capital accumulation. J. of Political 
Econ. 8.^:1.^7-1.56. 

Demand Theory 

Even though demand theory has received great 
attention and has become very sophisticated, 
there are recent developments that appear to hold 
great promise in understanding the basic choices 
being made by consumers. The concept has been 
developed that commodities are demanded to the 
extent that a given commodity contributes to the 
attainment of several objectives. Thus food is 
desired for its nutritional attributes as well as its 
taste components. 

This notion has given rise to a number of re- 
search projects that may influence future demand 
analysis. One is a general modeling of the ap- 
proach. Another is directed to the nutritional and 
nonnutritional components of the demand for 
food items. An example of an additional applica- 
tion of this basic idea is the component-pricing of 
fluid milk and of soybeans. 

Ladd. George W. and Veraphol Suvannunt. 1976. A model of 
consumer goods characteristics. Am. Jour, of Ag. Economics, 
58:504-510. 

Lancaster. Kelvin. 1971. Consumer demand: A new approach. 
Columbia Press, New York. 

Prato. A. A. and J. N. Bagali. 1976. Nutrition and nonnutrition 
components of demand for food items. Am. Jour, of Ag. Eco- 
nomics. 58:563-567. 

Measurement of Consumer Demand 

The construction of models that investigate 
price and income effects on consumption of indi- 


vidual agricultural commodities as well as the in- 
terrelationships among related products made 
possible a new level of precision in the measure- 
ment of demand. Studies have provided new in- 
sights into the complexities of farm product price 
behavior, improved understanding of the forces at 
work to influence price fluctuations, and a more 
adequate base for evaluating agricultural price 
policy alternatives. These studies produced new 
procedures for weaving together modern demand 
theory and the latest econometric methods. Meth- 
ods have been developed that provide the founda- 
tion for similar investigations in other countries 
and for continuing improvement in price and con- 
sumption models for a large number of products 
in the United States. 

Brandow. George E. Interrelations among demands for farm 
products and implications for control of market supply. Penn- 
sylvania Ag. Exp. Sta. Bulletin 680, University Park. P.'\. 
Aug, 1961. 

Frisch. R. 1950. A complete schema for computing all direct 
and cross-demand elasticities in a model with many sectors. 
Econometrica, 27:177-196. 

George. P. S. and G. A. King. 1971. Consumer demand for 
food commodities in the United Stales with projections for 
1980. Giannini Foundation Monograph No. 26, California Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, Davis. California. 


Labor Supply 

Past work has spurred the development of eco- 
nomic theory and modeling of the choices of indi- 
viduals and household members between market 
and nonmarket activities. Many of the study ap- 
proaches that have grown out of the so-called 
labor-leisure problem are in a stage of develop- 
ment that should shortly move to the analysis of 
policies affecting farm people. Three important 
areas in which recent advances have occurred are 
market supply of labor by the household mem- 
bers, farm-nonfarm division of the farmer's work 
time, and effects of human capital investment on 
farm productivity. 

Barros, Geraldo Sant'Ana De Camargo. 1977. Asking wages, 
market wages, and the off-farm labor supply by farm opera- 
tors. Unpublished dissertation, N. C. State University, Ra- 
leigh. N. C. 

Becker, G. S. 1965. A theory of the allocation of time. Eco- 
nomic Journal. 75:495-517. 

Chang, Seok Jung. 1976. An economic analysis of the adoption 
of new wheat varieties under uncertainty in Ferozepur District 
(India). Unpublished dissertation. N.C. State University. Ra- 
leigh. N.C. 

Hsu. Chun-Yang. Forthcoming. Education, production and 
labor substitution in agriculture. Unpublished dissertation. 
N.C. State University. Raleigh. N.C. 


AGRICULTURE 


23 


Huffman, Wallace, E. 1976. The produclive value of human 
time in U.S. agriculture. American Journal of Agricultural 
Economics 5S: 672-683. 

Sexton. Roger Neil. 1975. Determinants of multiple job-hold- 
ing by farm operators. Unpublished dissertation, N.C. State 
University, Raleigh, N.C. 

Welch, Finis. 1970. Education in production. Journal of Politi- 
cal Economy 78:.^5-69 

Interorganizational Coordination 

Several research studies focusing on the pro- 
cess of developing coordination among organiza- 
tions have been completed. Research objectives 
included: (I) Description and measurement of the 
amount and kind of interaction among organiza- 
tions possible at local, community, district, and 
State levels; (2) specification of the effect of lev- 
els of interorganizational relations upon the local 
community's effectiveness in meeting local needs; 
(3) specification of factors that lead to increased 
coordination among agencies; and (4) empirical 
studies on rural development agency systems, 
natural resource agency systems, health organiza- 
tions, and low income systems. 

Chiacharoen. 1974. Cooperative interaction and goal attain- 
ment among rural development organizations: a study in inter- 
organizational relations. Ph.D. dissertation. Iowa State Uni- 
versity. 

Klonglan, G.E., C. L. Mulford and R. D. Warren. 1976. Mod- 
erating effects on the relationship between interorganizational 
relations and goal achievement Paper presented at the Rural 
Sociological Society meetings. New York City. 

Klonglan, G. E., S. K. Paulson and D. I.. Rogers. 1972. Mea- 
surement of interorganizational relations: a deterministic mo- 
del. Paper presented at the .American Sociological Association 
meetings. New Orleans. 

Klonglan. G. E.. R. D. Warren, J. M. Winkelpleck and S. K. 
Paulson. Interorganizational measurement in the social serv- 
ices sector: differences by hierarchical level. Administrative 
Science Quarterly 21:67.5-687. 

Molnar, J. J. 1976. The integration of interorganizational net- 
works: domain consensus and interdependence in organization- 
al dyads. Ph. D. dissertation. Iowa State University. 

Mulford. C. L.. G. E. Klonglan and J. Kopachevsky. 1974. 
Interorganizational relations and goal achievement. Paper pre- 
sented at the Rural Sociological Society meetings. Montreal. 
Quebec. 

Mulford. C. I ... G. E. Klonglan. J M. Winkelpleck and R. D. 
Warren. 1975. Creating Interorganizational coordination: an 
orientation. Sociology Report 122B. Department of Sociology 
and Anthropology. Iowa State University. Ames. Iowa. 

Paulson. S. K. 1974. Causal analysis of interorganizational re- 
lations: an axiomatic theory revised. Administrative Science 
Quarterly 9:319-337. 

Rogers. D. I^. 1969. Costs and benefit of alternative strategies 
for interagency coordination. Chapter 9 in Aspects of Planning 
for Public Services in Rural Areas. Edited by David E. Rogers 
and Larry R. Whiting. Ames. Iowa: NCRCRD. June. 


Rogers. D. L. 1974. Sociometric analysis of interorganizational 
relations: application of theory and method. Rural Sociology 

."(9:487-503. 

Rogers, D. L. 1974. Towards a scale of interorganizational re- 
lations among public agencies. Sociology and Social Research 
.59:61-70. 

Rogers. D. L.. and E. L. Glick. 1973. Planning for interagency 
cooperation in rural development. Report 45. Center for Ag- 
ricultural and Rural Development. Iowa State University. 
Ames. Iowa. 

Rogers. D. L.. and J. Molnar. 1975. Interorganizational rela- 
tions among development organizations: empirical assessment 
and implications for interagency systems. Report 62. Center 
for Agricultural and Rural Development. Iowa State Universi- 
ty. Ames. Iowa. 

Rogers. D. L.. and J. Molnar. Organizational antecedents of 
role conflict and ambiguity in top-level administrators. Admin- 
istrative Science Quarterly, in press. 

Warren. R. D.. G. E. Klonglan, J. M. Winkelpleck and S. K. 
Paulson. 1974. Interorganizational measurement: differences 
between types of organizations. Paper presented at the Ameri- 
can Sociological Association. August. Montreal. Quebec. 


Current and Future Research 
Emphasis 

The Congress has explicitly charged the Agri- 
culture Department and the cooperating federally 
funded State agricultural and forestry research 
organizations with responsibility for both basic 
and applied research necessary to achieve the 
Nation's agricultural research mission. Thus, 
these public agricultural research organizations 
have a clear mandate to identify and to implement 
areas of basic and applied research. As stated ear- 
lier, the research strategy of these organizations is 
to allocate available resources over time among 
the total array of researchable problems in the 
basic-applied research continuum in such a way 
as to make a maximum contribution to the mis- 
sions. 

The process of identifying the mix of problem 
areas to be funded is a complex one, and an ex- 
planation of the theoretical or operational process 
for identifying that mix is beyond the scope of 
this report. However, it is not difficult to identify 
those broad areas of science for which the public- 
ly funded agricultural and forestry research orga- 
nizations must accept a primary responsibility for 
ensuring that basic research is adequately sup- 
ported. 

Agricultural and forestry systems are primarily 
biological processes and environment based. Thus 
the biological sciences and those areas of the geo- 
physical sciences that relate to the occurrence and 
control of the microenvironmental conditions 
within which biological processes of agriculture 


24 


AGRICULTURE 


and forestry occur are clearly broad areas of sci- 
ence for which the public agricultural and forestry 
research organizations must accept a primary ba- 
sic research responsibility. Basic research in other 
broad areas of science are also appropriate to ag- 
ricultural and forestry research when clearly iden- 
tified as mission supportive or mission contribut- 
ing. 

The following examples are areas of science in 
which a basic research approach is required. 
Advances in knowledge in areas such as these are 
important to high priority thrusts in agricultural 
and forestry technology or to advances in institu- 
tional arrangements and in the quality of life in 
rural communities and homes. Necessary increas- 
es in total resources available to the publicly 
funded agricultural and forestry research organi- 
zations are assumed. 

Nitrogen fixation. Adequate supplies of nitrogen 
are essential to crop productivity. Increased crop 
yields during the past 25 years have paralleled 
increased use of nitrogen fertilizer. For several 
reasons, including energy and economic costs, 
improved or alternate technologies for providing 
nitrogen to crops need to be developed. Research 
in this area should determine which of the sym- 
biotic or associated nitrogen fixation processes 
can be modified to reduce genetic, physiological, 
and environmental barriers to providing nitrogen 
to crops. The possibilities include, among others, 
in-depth exploratory research on the catalytic 
mechanisms, control, and efficiency of nitrogen- 
ase and associated reactions; genetics of regula- 
tion and transfer of nitrogen-fixation genes; and 
physiological and agronomic studies of Ni-fixing 
microorganisms and their associated crop plants. 

Photosynthesis. Since 95 percent of the dry 
weight of plants is a result of photosynthesis, 
studies on this process have high priority in ef- 
forts to improve crop productivity. The objective 
of these studies will be to determine the funda- 
mental biology involved in increasing net photo- 
synthesis and to obtain more efficient partitioning 
of the products of photosynthesis into food prod- 
ucts of high nutritional value. Research will be 
expanded in three major sub-areas: (I) Identifying 
the aspects of photosynthesis that limit COt input 
in natural environments, (2) determining the rela- 
tionship of plant development to photosynthesis, 
and (3) developing new methodology for plant 
breeders to aid in identifying and incorporating 
improved photosynthetic efficiency into crops. 

Genetic engineering for plants. The objective of 
these studies will be to determine those plant pro- 
cesses and characteristics that can be used by 
plant breeders in manipulating plant genotypes to 
increase crop productivity. Biochemists and plant 
physiologists must be brought into direct and ac- 


tive team participation with plant breeders and 
other scientists who work with the genetic and 
cultural improvement of crops. Studies in this 
area will utilize pollen cell and tissue culture tech- 
niques to accelerate genetic improvement of crop 
plants by (I) determining how to regenerate whole 
plants from the cultures obtained, (2) applying the 
principles of somatic cell genetics to understand- 
ing the growth of higher plants, (3) performing 
mass selective screeening for traits of agronomic 
value, (4) employing cultures for preservation of 
germplasm of vegetatively propagated species, (5) 
developing selection schemes to recover process- 
es unique to higher plants, (6) increasing genetic 
diversity by inducing and recovering chromosome 
changes in somatic cells, and (7) developing inno- 
vative techniques of genetic engineering. 

Recombinant DNA. Recombinant DNA tech- 
niques are used to join together segments of DNA 
from different sources in a cell-free system to 
form recombinant DNA molecules capable of in- 
fecting a host cell and replicating either autono- 
mously or as an integral part of the host's ge- 
nome. The objective of this research is to im- 
prove techniques for applying this method to or- 
ganisms useful in agriculture. Extending the tech- 
nique to protoplasts of higher plants and animals 
would be a significant scientific advance. The 
technique could be used to achieve any of the 
many objectives of breeding in those cases where 
traditional approaches are less efficient. Some 
possible applications include: (1) Improved nitro- 
gen-fixing bacteria, (2) improved bacteria for ru- 
minant digestion, (3) improved photosynthetic effi- 
ciency, (4) biological control of pests, (5) host re- 
sistance to pests, and (6) improved quality of ba- 
sic foodstuffs. 

Plant protection. Plant pests are a major limita- 
tion to high crop productivity. Progress in reduc- 
ing pest losses has been impeded by the rapid 
obsolescence of available technology, by various 
changes in production practices, and by the 
continued penetration of pests of foreign origin. 
Future progress requires basic research on losses 
in production caused by pests and on adverse en- 
vironmental effects resulting from pests and meth- 
ods of combating them. Emphasis will be on pest 
insects, nematodes, weeds, and pathogenic mi- 
croorganisms. The research will be directed to- 
ward (1) identifying and quantifying the basic bio- 
logical and physical parameters of a particular 
pest system such as host-pest-parasite-environ- 
mental interactions and the dynamics of pest and 
competitor population levels, migration, and life- 
cycle; (2) characterizing the fundamental physiol- 
ogy, biochemistry, behavior, and systematics of 
pests and competitors; and (3) identifying me- 
chanisms of plant susceptibility and resistance. 

AGRICULTURE 25 


Respiratory and enteric diseases. Respiratory 
diseases are one of the most economically impor- 
tant limitations to eHicient animal production. 
Control of the diseases is very difficult due to 
the complex etiology involving one or more path- 
ogens and many environmental effects. Funda- 
mental research is needed on: (I) The nature and 
inheritance of innate defense mechanisms of live- 
stock and poultry species, (2) methods of effec- 
tively stimulating specific immunity, and (3) the 
contribution of environmental and behavioral 
stressors on the susceptibility of animals to dis- 
ease. Enteric diseases, particularly in young ani- 
mals, cause an estimated $1 billion annual losses 
in the United States. Diseases such as calf scours, 
transmissible gastroenteritis, swine dysentery, col- 
ibacillosis of all species, and salmonella are exam- 
ples of the broad range of enteric diseases that 
threaten every animal producer. Basic research is 
needed to develop simple but efficient methods to 
diagnose the cause of the disease and to stimulate 
the cellular immune mechanisms in the neonate. 

Hormonal control of growth and reproduction. 

Many aspects of the growth and reproduction of 
animals, plants, insects, and other organisms are 
regulated by hormonal growth substances. Under- 
standing the nature of these controlling mecha- 
nisms, the causal agents, and their mode of action 
could provide keys to embryonic mortality, ovula- 
tion synchronization, and growth efficiency in ani- 
mals; uniformity in growth and ripening of plants; 
and insect population control. 

Physiological control of cellular growth in ani- 
mals. Progress in analytical methodology now will 
permit greater in-depth study of cellular function 
and the physiological mechanisms regulating the 
cellular composition of tissue. The quantitative and 
qualitative aspects of meat and animal products as 
food relate primarily to the animal's ability to de- 
posit the desired quantity and quality of protein, lip- 
ids, and other compounds in tissue. 

Factors at the cellular level influencing rate and 
efficiency of synthesis of protein, lipids, and other 
compounds are poorly understood. Isolation and 
identification of the cellular constituents that regu- 
late tissue synthesis and degradation and the dis- 
tribution and quantity of lipid deposition is neces- 
sary to determine which mechanisms are amena- 
ble to control. 

Human nutrition. Knowledge of the precise 
kinds, quantities, and balance of nutrients re- 
quired for human health and productivity is seri- 
ously lacking — not only for persons living in an 
ideal environment, but particularly for persons 
subject to dietary, climatic, and other types of 
stress. Support provided by this program empha- 
sizes (I) determining nutrient requirements for 

26 AGRICULTURE 


healthy people with varying needs such as those 
occurring at different ages, sex, and occupation, 
with particular emphasis on needs of high risk 
groups; and (2) identifying and evaluating factors 
affecting the biological availability and utilization 
of nutrients. 

Basic properties of food systems. Fundamental 
knowledge is needed on model animal and plant 
food systems (fluid, semisolid, and solid) to un- 
derstand the role of various components in the 
systems and the effects of component interaction 
on the piiysical, chemical, organoleptic, micro- 
biological, nutritional, functional, and structural 
properties. Basic data are needed to establish 
improved criteria for the safety and wholesome- 
ness of foods and food ingredients. Research 
should include development of new screening 
methods to identify potential carcinogens, muta- 
gens, and/or naturally occurring toxicants. Knowl- 
edge regarding microbiological hazards is incom- 
plete. Procedures for enumerating cells in pro- 
cessed foods may fail to quantitate thermally 
stressed cells or recovery cells. 

Terrestrial and aquatic ecology as related to 
atmospheric transfer and precipitation systems. 

Historically, it was accepted that local ecology 
was dependent primarily upon local geophysical 
characteristics, water precipitation, humidity, 
temperature, and local human activities. It is now 
recognized that materials other than water are 
transferred in the atmosphere over long distances 
and that those materials can have an important 
ecological effect in the locale in which they are 
precipitated. Those atmospheric deposits may 
play an important positive role as supplemental 
plant nutrients, or they may be injurious to plants. 
Those precipitants from the atmosphere may also 
influence the health of man, domestic and wild 
animals, and aquatic life. 

Atmospheric transfer and deposit of materials 
are to a large extent subject to control by man. 
improved understanding of atmospheric transfer 
and precipitation systems and their effects upon 
the ecology of affected locales is needed. Social 
decisions about the composition and location of 
activities must reflect these second order or spill- 
over costs and benefits. Since many of those spill- 
over costs and benefits are transmitted to society 
through the land-based agricultural and forestry 
industries, basic research on the relationships of 
atmospheric transfer and precipitation systems to 
agricultural and forest ecosystems will contribute 
to the agricultural research mission. 

Crop growth models. Mathematical models can 
be developed to describe crop response to envi- 
ronmental conditions at different stages of pheno- 
logical development. Major emphasis is placed on 


environmental management systems to counteract 
adverse responses. When these models are appro- 
priately interfaced, crop yield prediction is im- 
proved. 

Characterization of new pathogenic nucleic acid 
moieties. The discovery of viroids and myco- 
plasms as causative agents of viral diseases opens 
up new areas for research. The presence of any 
array of nucleic acid pathogens ranging from the 
naked viroid to the viral nucleoproteins and on to 
the more highly organized bodies of mycoplasms 
analogous to a primitive form of naked bacteroid 
cells presents a problem of differentiation and 
development of different approaches to therapy. 
The most reliable diagnostic device for myco- 
plasms is their response to highly specific antibiot- 
ics. The processes for biogenesis of this material 
and transmission of hereditary control must be 
resolved. Among this series of agents are some of 
the most pernicious and destructive pathogens. 

Alternative sources of energy. Farm and forest 
operations must become more versatile in the use 
of energy. Capability is required to utilize multi- 
ple sources of energy in agricultural operations 
such as solar radiation, wind, coal, crop and for- 
est residues, nuclear radiation, and oil, as well as 
other sources presently unknown. The biomass 
conversion of plant materials to energy requires 
concerted study. The energy potential of various 
plants requires study as does potential production 
of the most desirable biological materials. 

Salt control of irrigation return flows. Under 
natural conditions, rainfall leaches salt below the 
root zone of native vegetation. If crops with deep- 
er rooting patterns are planted, some provision 
to move the salt deeper must be made. Under irri- 
gation, this means adding more water than is lost 
by evapotranspiration. If excess water is applied, 
the subsoil salt is leached into the stream. 
Methods to add only enough water to keep plants 
turgid and salt just below the roots will result in 
less salt returned to streams. This approach to 
water quality control is much more economical 
and attractive than chemical desalting. 

Biomass productivity and fuel combustion effi- 
ciency. Producing the maximum amount of wood 
and other organic fibrous materials in the shortest 
time possible by closely integrated use of fast- 
growing improved genetic material, close spac- 
ings, application of intensive cultural practices, 
and total tree or crop plant harvesting and utiliza- 
tion requires a strong underpinning of basic 
knowledge. Forest biomass produced under inten- 
sive short rotation management is highly suitable 
for various wood-using industries and as basic 
raw material for energy production. Quantity and 
quality of material produced, energy trade-offs, 
and the economic alternatives of intensive short 


rotation management for maximizing biomass 
production are practical considerations as basic 
knowledge is put into use. 

Opportunities of use of wood and other organic 
fibrous materials as an alternate fuel to natural gas 
and oil is highly dependent on obtaining maximum 
combustion efficiency. However, little is known 
about the refinements for improving this efficien- 
cy, particularly about the interrelationships of parti- 
cle size, moisture content, and density as they re- 
late to alternative combustion and fuel-handling 
techniques. 

Combustion products and their photochemistry. 
The growing use of fire as a silvicultural practice, 
coupled with the increasingly stringent air quality 
standards requires in-depth exploration of the 
chemistry of wood combustion and variations in 
combustion products with species and burning 
conditions. Release of these combustion products 
into the atmosphere where they are subjected to 
radiation throughout the solar spectrum, as modi- 
fied by atmospheric transmissivity, demands the 
production of new knowledge about these photo- 
chemical processes involving combustion prod- 
ucts. 

Wood structure and durability. Principles lead- 
ing to improved performance and longer lasting 
materials must be better understood to help en- 
sure adequate long-term supplies of the Nation's 
basic materials of construction. Additional infor- 
mation on the long-term loading characteristics of 
wood and wood structural components; on wood- 
insect relationships, wood-fungi relationships, and 
wood-fire relationships; and on the manipulation 
of tree physiology will eventually lead to effective 
combined wood treatment and wood construction 
systems that are efficient and reduce the needs for 
toxic chemicals and large energy inputs. 

Nutrient gains and losses associated with inten- 
sive forest management. Intensive cultural prac- 
tices in concert with improved utilization prac- 
tices are expected to result in major changes in 
soil nutrient reserves over a wide range of forest 
sites. Nutrient gains can be achieved by artificial 
applications of fertilizers, use of nurse crops and 
introduction of nitrogen-fixing plants. Nutrient 
losses result from complete removal of forest 
biomass and from soil disturbances attributable to 
intensive site preparation, vegetation control, and 
other related practices. Better understanding of 
nutrient budget and nutrient cycling processes 
under various intensities of forest management 
over a wide range of soil and site conditions will 
help maintain needed forest characteristics. 

Forest fire effects. It is necessary to be able to 
predict the effects of fire on many components of 
forest ecosystems. This includes relationships of 
plants or organisms to fire, especially their heat 

AGRICULTURE 27 


sensitivity under varying ecological conditions. 
Time/temperature relationships can result in ther- 
mal damage to plant organs as well as to soil 
fauna and organisms. More needs to be known 
about the physiological effects of near lethal tem- 
peratures on plant functions such as respiration, 
translocation, growth substances, and enzyme 
reactions. 

Chemical derivatives from wood. Wood, a mix- 
ture of organic polymers, can be used directly as 
an energy fuel; as a raw material for conversion 
into liquid, solid, or gaseous fuels; for conversion 
into chemical feedstocks to replace petrochemi- 
cals; and for conversion into human or animal 
feedstuffs. Naval stores, lignin, and carbohydrates 
could be potential new sources of organic chemi- 
cals at lower costs and with environmental side- 
benefits. Basic research will develop information 
on solvation, separation, derivatives, and reac- 
tions of these complex chemical constituents of 
wood. 

Methodologies for measuring nontimber goods 
and services of forest and rangelands. Improved 
methodologies are needed for defining the supply 
potential for all the varied, interacting goods and 
services provided by forest and rangelands. 

Consequences of and adjustments to price insta- 
bility. These studies should enhance understand- 
ing of modern market structure and performance 
and form a basis for more accurate forecasts of 
commodity prices, market demand and supply 
conditions, and the incidence of benefits and costs 
resulting from price and output instability. This 
knowledge, in turn, should provide an improved 
basis for evaluating various public options for 
market intervention or stimulation. 

New research will inquire further into the na- 
ture and sources of price and output instability in 
commodity markets and quantify changing rela- 
tionships. The effects of this instability on the 
organization and structure of farming will be as- 
sessed. Relevant actions and optional adjustments 
of farmers will be analyzed. Contracting, diversi- 
fication, and enterprise-sharing arrangements will 
be included in these analyses. 

Comprehensive economic forecasting and projec- 
tion models. Efforts to upgrade information on the 
near-term agricultural outlook and on long-run 
projections both to public and private decision- 
makers provide a continuing framework for basic 
research. Economists forecast prices, production, 
domestic use, and exports for individual commod- 
ities; and they make estimates for aggregates, 
such as farm income, the farm and retail price 
indexes, and food consumption. In connection 
with this, they seek an increasingly relevant con- 
ceptual context for such forecasts to enhance 
their reliability and more adequately define the 

28 AGRICULTURE 


limits to this reliability and the reasons for these 
limits. 

Experimental approaches include prototype goal 
programming to estimate the competitive equilibri- 
um situation due to U. S. domestic and export 
food and fiber requirements, with technology, 
resource availability, and methods of production 
and marketing as fixed factors. A short-term ag- 
gregate income and wealth simulator model con- 
sists of 53 ancillary relationships, 21 simultaneous 
equations, and 4 account identities. It forecasts 
components of the income accounts, balance 
sheet, and a sources and use of funds statement 
for the farm sector. 

World food situation and country market studies. 
Uncertainty about future world markets, particu- 
larly in regard to major trade commodities such as 
grains and oilseeds, places a premium on upgrad- 
ing the quality of economic research on foreign 
markets. Accordingly, economists are evolving an 
integrated system of individual country models to 
be used either separately or as a properly linked 
world trade model. In-depth studies and models 
for individual major countries and/or economical- 
ly integrated groups of countries will be linked to 
U.S. models already operational and others being 
developed. The models will be used for interme- 
diate-term projections — up to five years. The de- 
velopment of such a framework that includes par- 
allel analysis of countries at varying stages of de- 
velopment and with various forms of government 
will necessarily involve a significant component of 
basic research. This work will backstop continuing 
forecasts of the world food situation. 

Population and migration. Systematic inquiries 
into changes in population size, composition, and 
related residential characteristics, and analyses of 
alternative explanations of these changes are ba- 
sic inputs to other studies that seek to relate man- 
power utilization and consumer or resident satis- 
faction to the degree of development of a commu- 
nity, area, or region and to the interrelationships 
between that area and the Nation. These analy- 
ses comprise some of the basic materials necessary 
for an understanding of national and related sub- 
national development. Attainment of this under- 
standing is necessary so that a range of programs 
for development or revitalization of communities 
or cities, for provision of cost-effective facilities 
and services, and for provision of a minimum in- 
come for all residents can be most effectively 
evolved and administered. 

Regional and rural development. An improved 
understanding is needed of the significance of the 
rural or nonmetropolitan sector in the national 
and international economies and the interfaces 
with other subnational entities such as communi- 
ties. Modeling work is a key approach to gaining 


needed answers. 

Economists and sociologists are also exploring 
improved ways of estimating the comparative so- 
cial and economic attainments of various com- 
munities so that the most meaningful and objec- 
tive sets of indicators, of progress can be pro- 
duced. Preliminary findings using principal compo- 
nent analysis demonstrate the feasibility of quan- 
tifying various dimensions of socioeconomic well- 
being at the county level. 

Food, nutrition, and income. A general realiza- 
tion is emerging that some income assistance pro- 
grams are likely to be needed even in a full em- 
ployment economy without undue wage-price in- 
flation. Thus, adequate basic analyses will be 
needed of the role of income assistance programs 
in national and rural development, in the national 
economy, and in the attainment of a minimum 
level of living by all citizens. Adequate public 
evaluation of alternative minimum income pro- 
grams depends on objective analyses of the un- 
derlying economic effects of these programs. 

Capital and credit. Farm production is increas- 
ingly specialized and capital intensive. To remain 
competitive, some farms must use larger amounts 
of land of rapidly increasing value and buy large 
amounts of nonfarm inputs. At the same time, the 
Federal Government, through the Rural Develop- 
ment Act of 1972 and other policy instruments, 
has encouraged nonfarm activities in rural areas. 
The population turnaround of the 1970's also in- 
volved a relative increase in the population of 
many nonmetropolitan communities. At the same 
time, we have had wage-price inflation and high 
unemployment. These changing circumstances 
place a premium on addressing issues relating to 
the provision of credit to rural people and institu- 
tions. Addressing these and related issues re- 
quires a basic understanding of the functioning 
and significance of rural credit markets in the con- 
text of national development and the associated 
advancement of the food and fiber industry and 
rural communities. 

Impact assessments. The 1970's have seen in- 
creasing conflicts between national development 
and the maintenance of environmental quality and 
community well-being. One of the evident con- 
tinuing public concerns is that of attaining ade- 
quate levels of output of food, natural fiber, and 
wood products at the same time as the Nation 
undertakes to protect and improve environmental 
quality and provide needed sources of energy. 

Impact assessments depend in a large measure 
on conceptualizing key interrelationships that 
underlie the major trade-oflfs that must be consid- 
ered. For example, studies are needed to devise 
improved methodologies for evaluating and inter- 
preting effects of discontinuing a pesticide use. 


These need to encompass changes in cost of pro- 
duction and farm and forest income for typical sit- 
uations. Additionally, in a broader context, they 
need to relate to economic implications for na- 
tional farm and forest income, consumer prices, 
and foreign exchange earnings. 


Organization and Management of 
Research Activities 

Most of the Nation's publicly supported agricul- 
tural research is performed by the 4 major and 2 
smaller research agencies in the USDA; 56 Agri- 
cultural Experiment Stations in the 50 States, 
Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Dis- 
trict of Columbia; 19 schools of forestry; 16 land- 
grant colleges of 1890; and the Tuskegee Institute. 
This geographically decentralized agricultural and 
forestry research system has built-in responsive- 
ness to a wide range of national, regional. State, 
and local problems. In general, research in the 
USDA is more heavily concentrated on problems 
of national and regional significance, but not ex- 
clusively. The research agencies of the USDA 
and the State Agricultural Experiment Stations 
historically have pooled ideas, manpower, and 
facilities in order to ensure a coordinated attack 
on problems common to several States or to a re- 
gion. Cooperative research efforts are coordinated 
and implemented through joint planning sessions, 
workshops, reviews, and scientist-to-scientist con- 
tacts. 


Organization and Management Within the 
Agricultural Research Service 

The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) con- 
ducts basic, applied, and developmental research 
on the production of plants and animals; on the 
use and improvement of soil, water, and air re- 
sources; on the processing, marketing, safety, and 
use of agricultural products; and on rural housing 
and consumer services. Research is usually fo- 
cused on national and regional problems of con- 
tinuing significance. 

For purposes of administration and manage- 
ment of its research programs, the Agricultural 
Research Service is organized into 4 regions and 
26 areas, which include 7 large research centers 
administered as separate units. The research is 
located at 149 separate locations in the United 
States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. 
Intramural research in 12 foreign countries is sep- 
arately administered by an International Programs 
Division. The research centers have large aggrega- 
tions of diversified expertise concentrated at two 

AGRICULTURE 29 


animal disease centers, four regional research 
centers for utilization and processing, and the 
Beltsville Agricultural Research Center which 
covers nearly all of the Agency's research pro- 
grams. Many of the ARS locations are at land- 
grant universities where ARS scientists have 
ready access to library and computer facilities and 
to scientists and engineers of other disciplines. 

While the administrative and fiscal management 
of ARS is achieved through the organizational 
structure, the scientific management of the re- 
search is accomplished through the ARS manage- 
ment and planning system (MAPS). The heart of 
this system is 67 subject-matter national research 
programs (NRP's) into which the Agency's total 
research program is divided. Each NRP has a sci- 
ence-oriented coordinator in the Agency's Nation- 
al Program Staff. Research is planned, document- 
ed, reported, and reviewed within the framework 
of the technological objectives described for each 
NRP. Decisions to initiate, terminate, or redirect 
research activities, including basic activities, are 
frequently proposed by performing scientists 
themselves at research locations, or are recom- 
mended by line and program managers during the 
annual review process, or are based on recommen- 
dations by research workshops, review teams, or 
research planning committees involved in intra- 
and interagency coordination. 

ARS has not conducted a competitive basic 
research grant program for several years; in con- 
stant dollars, the ARS budget has declined 12 per- 
cent since 1968 (see Table 4). However, ARS 
does maintain a small extramural research pro- 
gram primarily for the purposes of filling gaps and 
supplementing or extending intramural programs. 
Research proposals are solicited and funding 
provided by the specific intramural programs. 
Such extramural research may be either basic or 
applied depending on program needs. 

Basic research is recognized as an inherent 
characteristic of the ARS research program. All 
types of research are incorporated in the Agen- 
cy's mission-oriented programs on a justified need 
basis. 

Organization and Management of State 
Programs Conducted in Cooperation With the 
Cooperative State Research Service 

The Cooperative State Research Service 
(CSRS) provides the administrative mechanism of 
the USDA for providing financial support to the 
State Agricultural Experiment Stations (SAES), 
cooperating forestry schools, the land-grant col- 
leges of 1890, and the Tuskegee Institute. CSRS 
maintains a headquarters staff to administer funds 
and provide a national focus for the separate sta- 
tions and schools. 

30 AGniCULTURE 


The State Agricultural Experiment Stations. 

There is one SAES in each of the 48 States (two 
each in two States) and one each in Puerto Rico, 
Guam, the Virgin Islands, and the District of Co- 
lumbia — for a total of 56. In general, the experi- 
ment stations are associated with a land-grant col- 
lege or university and thus are associated with 
and have access to total university expertise and 
facilities. 

Research programs of SAES are funded in part 
and on a continuing basis by the USDA through 
its CSRS. Funds are appropriated to the Depart- 
ment under the Hatch Act with a congressional 
directive that annual appropriations be distributed 
to the SAES on a formula basis. There are minor 
matching-fund requirements and the Secretary of 
Agriculture is instructed to work with SAES to 
ensure that Federal funds are used productively 
and for the purpose for which they were appropri- 
ated. In most States, Hatch and other Federal 
funds account for well under one-half of total 
operating funds of the SAES. The remaining 
funds are provided primarily from State appropri- 
ations. 

The basic unit of research in the SAES is the 
project, which is described later in this section. 
Prior approval of CSRS must be obtained in order 
that a project be eligible for support with Hatch 
funds. Annual or terminal project reports of re- 
search accomplishments and expenditures are 
made to CSRS for review and approval. 

In addition to the above project information, a 
summary financial report is made to CSRS by 
each SAES for each fiscal year and must be ap- 
proved by CSRS as meeting overall funding and 
expenditure requirements for Hatch appropria- 
tions. CSRS also convenes peer panels to perform 
periodic on-site reviews of major research pro- 
gram areas within each SAES. The primary pur- 
poses of these reviews are to assist the SAES in 
its program planning, evaluation, and develop- 
ment efforts and to fulfill the congressional man- 
date that the Secretary of Agriculture provide as- 
sistance to the SAES individually and promote and 
assist in coordinating the research programs of 
the several SAES. 

The SAES is typically one of three divisions 
within the college of agriculture of an 1862 State 
land grant university. The other two divisions are 
the State agricultural extension service and the 
academic program in agriculture. Each of the 
three divisions is administered by a director, and 
the three directors are responsible to the college 
dean. 

The SAES is a continuing research-performing 
organization in its own right administered within 
the land-grant university. It bears the cost of sus- 
taining its own scientific expertise, support per- 


sonnel, and research facilities and equipment 
within the academic departments of the universi- 
ty. This is in contrast to many internal university 
research institutes and centers which either assist 
academic faculty in obtaining outside grants or 
which make grants to academic faculty from the 
institute's or center's own funds for support of 
research conducted by the academic faculty in 
departmental facilities provided and equipped by 
the academic program of the university. 

The director of the SAES allocates to each 
department on a continuing basis funds for re- 
search support costs, including nonfaculty person- 
nel costs. In total, those continuing departmental 
allocations are a high percentage of all continuing 
support funds available to the SAES. It is the re- 
sponsibility of the department head to allocate 
those continuing support funds among departmen- 
tal faculty annually for support of approved SAES 
projects, subject to periodic review and approval 
by the SAES director. The department head also 
reviews the needs of the faculty for supplemental 
support of their research on SAES projects and 
makes recommendations to the SAES for the fund- 
ing of such needs from the director's reserves. In a 
typical college of agriculture, SAES funding ac- 
counts for 60 percent or more of total research and 
academic faculty salaries and 80 percent or more 
of total support costs of research and academic 
activities of the faculty. 

In the short run, the SAES research project is 
the primary unit of research resource management 
within the academic department and within the 
SAES. The research effort of each faculty mem- 
ber paid and/or supported by the SAES is defined 
in one or more project outlines. A project typical- 
ly has a duration of three to five years but is 
commonly t>f longer duration for projects that are 
predominately basic. Each project outline de- 
scribes project objectives, justification for attack- 
ing the problem, the current state of knowledge 
and the status of other research in this and in 
closely related problem areas, research methods 
and procedures to be utilized in achieving the 
objectives, and resource requirements. 

Various devices are used by the SAES director 
to help ensure faculty project proposals that are 
of high quality from a scientific point of view and 
that are devoted to priority problems of the 
SAES. The first device is liberal support of facul- 
ty involvement in the affairs of professional and 
scientific organizations. The second is a process 
of continuous communication among the director, 
the department head, and the faculty. A third de- 
vice is planned involvement of SAES faculty in 
research program reviews and discussions with 
the users of research results. These users include 
representatives from the agricultural industry and 


rural communities and extension personnel. These 
reviews and discussions are devoted to content of 
the current research program and research needs 
of the SAES clientele. A fourth device is periodic 
reviews of the research program in major problem 
areas by teams of peer scientists, normally with 
CSRS assistance. A fifth device is active encour- 
agement of and liberal support for faculty study in 
other research agencies and institutions. 

The State Forestry Research Organizations. The 
Mclntire-Stennis Act authorizes Congress to ap- 
propriate funds to the USDA for support of for- 
estry research programs in designated State For- 
estry Research Organizations (SFRO). Like Hatch 
funds, Mclntire-Stennis appropriations are distrib- 
uted to the SFRO by formula. The funds may be 
expended only on projects approved by CSRS. 

Overview by the USDA and program planning 
and resource management are essentially the same 
for the SFRO as that described in preceding para- 
graphs for the SAES. The principal difference is 
in the organization at the State level. 

At the State level, the SFRO may be the SAES, 
another designated unit of the land-grant universi- 
ty, or a designated unit of another State universi- 
ty. Further, the individual who administers the 
SFRO is known as the Mclntire-Stennis Adminis- 
trative-Technical Representative. Except for these 
differences, organization and management of the 
SFRO is the same as described for the SAES. In 
fact, in many States the SAES is also the SFRO 
and the SAES director is the Mclntire-Stennis 
Administrative-Technical Representative. 

The 1890 Land Grant Universities and Tuskegee 
Institute. Agricultural research programs of the 
1890 land grant universities and Tuskegee Insti- 
tute are funded primarily through research grants 
from the USDA administered by its CSRS. Typi- 
cally, some operating funds and the principal cap- 
ital items at these institutions are provided by the 
institution, primarily from State appropriations. 

The Federal grant funds are appropriated by the 
Congress expressly for support of these institu- 
tions under authority of Public Law 89-106. The 
USDA is directed to provide assistance to the in- 
stitutions in developing research programs to fur- 
ther the purposes of the Department and to en- 
sure that in each State the program is coordinated 
with that of the SAES. 

The grant-funded program of the USDA is ad- 
ministered within each of these institutions by a 
coordinator employed by the institution. The co- 
ordinator provides assistance to individual faculty 
within the academic departments of the institution 
in developing research grant proposals and in 
meeting fiscal and performance requirements of 
the USDA. He also provides liaison between the 
USDA and the institution and between the institu- 

AGRICULTURE 31 


tion and the SAES. Individual faculty grants are 
administered through regular academic units of 
the institution. Thus, the grant-funded program of 
the USDA is administered within the 1890 land 
grant institution essentially as an internal granting 
unit. 

Organization and Management Within the 
Economic Research Service 

The Economic Research Service (ERS) con- 
ducts social and economic research on issues that 
affect all facets of the food and fiber sector, use 
of our Nation's resources, economic growth, and 
quality of life in rural America including; 
Estimates of current resource use and availability, 
output and distribution of food and fiber, fore- 
casts and projections of resource use and output, 
adjustments and performance in the food and 
fiber sector and rural America, and the impacts on 
all segments of society. Research is focused on 
national and regional problems of continuing sig- 
nificance. 

Management. Research priorities are determined 
through interaction of ERS leaders with the Office 
of the Secretary, congressional committees, and 
other agencies and organizations. Subject matter 
emphasis and problem orientation stem from orga- 
nization of the service into six program divisions 
with responsibility for these respective broad sub- 
ject matter areas: National economic analysis, 
commodity economics, natural resource econom- 
ics, economic development, foreign demand and 
competition, and foreign development. These divi- 
sions, in turn, manage some 50 contributing sub- 
ject matter or program areas for such categories 
as inputs and finance in the food and fiber sector, 
transportation economics, dairy, developed coun- 
tries, rural resources and environment, manpow- 
er and population studies, and consumer econom- 
ics and demand analysis. 

Research projects are conducted within and 
across program area and division lines in accor- 
dance with ERS priorities and the availability of 
needed research expertise. The research is con- 
ducted both in Washington, D. C, and at some 70 
other locations throughout the United States. ERS 
typically also has some personnel overseas on 
special projects relating to agricultural develop- 
ment. ERS also works with Federal and State 
agencies, with SAES, 1890 colleges and the Tus- 
kegee Institute, Regional Centers for Rural Devel- 
opment, and other organizations as appropriate. 
This joint work includes the development of 
priorities and methodology, data accession, and 
interpretation and analysis and other phases of 
research, whether basic or applied, as the need 
arises. For example, one ERS researcher has 
been stationed at the Johnson Space Center, 

32 AGRICULTURE 


Houston, Texas, to work on interpretation of 
remote sensing for use in crop yield estimation. 
Others may analyze and interpret data available at 
a State capital or county seat. Others may work 
with imiversity faculty on conceptual and metho- 
dological developments. Some work with physical 
and biological scientists at various laboratories and 
field stations, including ARS regional laboratories. 

This routine rrianagement system is supplement- 
ed by a series of special provisions. In the case 
of a need for a major change in priorities, special 
work groups or task forces may be convened to 
help define the need and recommend alternatives 
for action. They may include members of a man- 
agement team, researchers from various divisions 
or program areas, and resource people from out- 
side ERS. 

At the beginning of each planning cycle, 5 per- 
cent of the budget and personnel ceilings are with- 
drawn from the divisions and reallocated on the 
basis of proposals for new research from the di- 
visions. Budget reviews are held each quarter and 
reallocations are made as needed. In addition, 
approximately one-third of the program areas are 
formally reviewed each year by the administrator 
and deputy administrators. This review typically 
follows a review by people outside the agency 
who have a particular interest or expertise in the 
area in question. 

Intramural and extramural research. The vast 
majority of the ERS program is conducted by 
ERS personnel. ERS has cooperative agreements 
with land grant and other universities and with 
consulting firms. These agreements are based on 
the ability of outside units to contribute to the 
ERS program because of their competitive advan- 
tage with respect to competence, location, or data 
services. Such outside activities are carefully 
planned to supplement activities within ERS. 

A new program of support for research at U.S. 
universities was recently inaugurated by ERS. 
The Service has invited research proposals on 25 
special issues believed suitable for a graduate stu- 
dent's dissertation. ERS expects to accept, on a 
competitive basis, about 10 proposals for work to 
begin prior to October 1, 1977. ERS will initiate a 
research agreement or contract with the institu- 
tion, specifying the research product and the 
amount of reimbursement. 

Recognition and funding of basic research. In 
ERS planning and program development, basic 
research is not separately identified nor does it 
receive special funding. However, many of the pro- 
ject and program plans contain objectives and 
methodological approaches that require basic re- 
search for their accomplishment. Priorities are set 
first on the basis of the economic and social signifi- 
cance of the problem addressed. Determinations 


are then made as to the approaches and resources 
of money, people, and time required. From this 
process, basic research, including conceptual de- 
velopment, model building, and new methods of 
measurement, are devised to facilitate the larger 
effort. 


Organization and IManagement Within the 
Forest Service 

The Forest Service maintains a forestry re- 
search program to provide the scientific basis for 
the management, protection, and use of the Na- 
tion's renewable natural resources. In addition to 
close support of its own national forest and state 
and private forestry programs. Forest Service 
research results also support the needs of other 
Federal agencies. State agencies, industries, and 
private individuals — thereby providing a basis for 
better management of all of the Nation's forest 
and related range lands. 

Forest Service research provides the knowledge 
to improve productivity of forest and related 
range resources, and protects them from fire, in- 
sects, disease, and other destructive agents. It 
advances multiple use through research on silvi- 
culture, wildlife habitat, watershed management, 
timber harvest engineering, forest products, en- 
dangered species, range management, environ- 
mental protection and enhancement, landuse plan- 
ning, and urban forestry. Research in resource 
economics keeps supply and demand information 
current and improves efficiency of forestry and 
range practices. 

Research is conducted through eight regional 
experiment stations, the Forest Products Labora- 
tory, and the Institute of Tropical Forestry. There 
are about 940 scientists at 81 project locations 
throughout the United States, including Puerto 
Rico. Some 78 percent of these project locations 
are on or near university campuses, and two- 
thirds of these are in direct affiliation with forest- 
ry schools. 

The research program of the Forest Service is 
planned through principles of public participation 
as called for in the Forest and Rangelands Re- 
sources Planning Act of 1974, and in conjunction 
with agriculture research planning of the USDA in 
close coordination with universities and other for- 
estry research institutions. 

Forest Service research is carried out by re- 
search work units, by R&D programs, and in a few 
instances by pioneering research work units which 
involve unusually competent scientists of proven 
excellence. Currently, there are 239 research work 
units, 6 R&D programs, and 7 pioneering research 


work units. Forest Service research is mission ori- 
ented with a significant proportion of the program 
devoted to basic research to provide a fundamental 
basis for application and development of new" tech- 
nology. Research is managed to provide a basis for 
development of sound land management policy 
and to solve the ever-changing problems faced by 
resource managers. It provides scientifically valid 
information and technology to solve current prob- 
lems, and it conducts basic research to ensure that 
scientific breakthroughs will continue to allow an 
ever-improving forest technology in the years 
ahead. The Forest Service utilizes cooperative re- 
search agreements, research grants, and research 
contracts to support the ongoing research mission. 

Competitive Grants Program for Mission- 
Oriented Basic Research 

Public Law 89-106 is a general authorization for 
the USDA to fund research through grants to oth- 
er research performing organizations to further the 
purposes of the Department. One of the important 
uses originally visualized for this authority was 
the funding of mission-oriented basic research; 
i.e., basic research in areas in which advances are 
identified as prerequisite to continuing advances 
in applied agricultural research and development 
and in agricultural technology. 

In the decade plus since passage of the act, the 
P.L. 89-106 grants authority has been used to 
achieve other priority national needs; but a com- 
petitive grants program for mission-oriented basic 
research is now being initiated. The Executive 
budget for fiscal year 1978 provides P.L. 89-106 
funds for competitive grants for mission-oriented 
basic research in four high priority areas of re- 
search to be funded initially. Those areas are photo- 
synthesis, nitrogen fixation, genetic engineering 
for plants, and plant protection. The competitive 
grants will be open to the entire U. S. scientific 
community. The program has been developed to 
complement the existing in-house research of the 
USDA and cooperating State research organiza- 
tions. 

Specific plans have been developed for adminis- 
tration and management of the program. 
Provisions are included for planning and review at 
the policy level to ensure coordination of the ef- 
fort with other public and private research pro- 
grams and to ensure selection of high priority 
areas to be funded over time. Provisions are also 
made for peer scientist participation in screening 
grant proposals and in program planning and de- 
velopment so as to ensure active interest and par- 
ticipation by the scientist community and the sci- 
entific quality of the research. 


AGRICULTURE 


33 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 


NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION 

Submitted by Robert M. White, Administrator 

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 

Submitted by Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Science and Teclinology 

MARITIME ADMINISTRATION 

Submitted by Jordan J. Baructi, Assistant Secretary for Science and Teclinology 

OFFICE OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS 

Submitted by Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology 


NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION 


NOAA Mission 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin- 
istration's (NOAA) broad goals include: (1) The 
development and execution of a national program 
to ensure the effective identification, management, 
and conservation of marine resources for the eco- 
nomic and social good of the Nation; (2) the de- 
velopment and operation of a national system to 
monitor and predict weather and environmental 
conditions for protecting life and property, and to 
increase the efficiency and productivity of govern- 
ment, industry, and the individual; (3) the preser- 
vation and development of the Nation's coastal 
resources by assisting the States and other public 
agencies in the wise management of the land and 
water resources of the coastal zone; and (4) the 
provision of the basic maps, charts, surveys, and 
specialized data required for safe navigation and 
accurate location. 

Specific detailed functions are listed below: 

• Collect, communicate, analyze, and dissemi- 
nate comprehensive data and information 
about the state of the upper and lower at- 
mospheres, of the oceans and the resources 
thereof including those in the seabed, of mar- 
ine and anadromous fish and related biologi- 
cal resources, of inland waters, of the earth, 
the sun, and the space environment. 

• Prepare and disseminate predictions of the 
future state of the environment and issue 


warnings of all severe hazards and extreme 
conditions of nature to all who may be af- 
fected. 

Administer a national management program 
to preserve, protect, develop, and where 
possible restore or enhance the land and 
water resources of the coastal zones, includ- 
ing grants to the States and interagency coor- 
dination and cooperation, as provided by the 
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. as 
amended by P.L. 94-370 of 1976. 
Develop technology and carry out scientific 
and engineering data collection and analysis 
and other functions to assess, monitor, har- 
vest, and utilize marine and anadromous 
fishery resources and their products. 
Provide maps and charts of the oceans and 
inland waters for navigation, geophysical, 
and other purposes; aeronautical charts; and 
related publications and services. 
Operate and maintain a system for the stor- 
age, retrieval, and dissemination of data re- 
lating to the state and resources of the 
oceans and inland waters including the 
seabed, and the states of the upper and lower 
atmospheres, the earth, the sun, and the 
space environment. 

Explore the feasibility of, develop the basis 
for, and undertake the modification and con- 
trol of environmental phenomena. 
Administer a program of sea grant colleges 
and education, training, and research in the 


34 


COMMERCE 


fields of marine science, engineering, and 
related disciplines as provided in the Sea 
Grant Program Improvement Act of 1976. 

• Perform basic and applied research and de- 
velop technology relating to the state and 
utilization of resources of the oceans and in- 
land waters including the seabed, the upper 
and lower atmospheres, the earth, the sun, 
and the space environment, as may be neces- 
sary or desirable to develop an understanding 
of the processes and phenomena involved. 

• Perform research and develop technology 
relating to the observation, communication, 
processing, analysis, dissemination, storage, 
retrieval, and use of environmental data as 
may be necessary or desirable to permit the 
Administration to discharge its responsibili- 
ties. 

• Acquire, analyze, and disseminate data and 
perform basic and applied research on elec- 
tromagnetic waves, as they relate to or are 
useful in performing other functions assigned 
herein; prepare and issue predictions of at- 
mospheric, ionospheric, and solar conditions, 
and warnings of disturbances thereof; and 
acquire, analyze, and disseminate data and 
perform basic and applied research on the 
propagation of sound waves and on interac- 
tions between sound waves and other pheno- 
mena. 


Definition of Basic Research 

Basic research is concerned primarily with gain- 
ing increased knowledge or understanding of a 
subject; it includes exploration, experimentation, 
theoretical analysis, and recording of the new in- 
formation discovered; it is not generally directed 
toward any specific practical application or the 
solution of operational problems. 

This is to be contrasted with applied research, 
which is concerned primarily with finding a practi- 
cal use of existing scientific knowledge or under- 
standing, or discovering new knowledge, for the 
purpose of meeting a specific recognized need. It 
discovers new relationships, new methods, or new 
applications of known methods. 

Role of Basic Research 

NOAA recognizes the need for increased un- 
derstanding in areas directly related to the mission 
of NOAA, as well as the need for solutions to 
practical problems. NOAA's policy is to conduct 
and support a research program that is balanced 
in regard to applied research and basic research 
that supports NOAA's mission. 


NOAA performs basic research in the upper 
and lower atmospheres, the oceans and the Great 
Lakes, the space environment, and the sun to 
develop an understanding of the fundamental pro- 
cesses and phenomena. NOAA also performs ba- 
sic research on electromagnetic waves to support 
other NOAA functions. 

Examples of Basic Research 

Noted below are the most significant projects 
involving basic research NOAA has carried out in 
the past 10 years. 

Studies of the Equatorial Ionosphere, 
Electrojets, and Irregularities 

Studies of the equatorial ionosphere began with 
the installation, at Jicamarca, Peru, of a large 
incoherent scatter radar facility. Although NOAA 
turned the facility over to the Peruvian Govern- 
ment in 1969 and removed NOAA personnel, 
NOAA's Aeronomy Laboratory has remained ac- 
tive in the study of the equatorial ionosphere and 
its motions by incoherent scatter techniques using 
the Jicamarca facility and smaller NOAA-devel- 
oped portable Doppler radar equipment (Refs. 3, 
4, 7, 10, 11); the study of the electron densities in 
the equatorial ionospheric E and F regions (Refs. 
1, 2, 5, 13); the use of airglow observations to 
understand the equatorial ionosphere (Refs. 6, 9); 
and, more recently, the application of similar 
Doppler radar techniques to study irregularities 
and the electrojet in the auroral zone (Ref. 12). 
This program is continuing both in equatorial and 
auroral regions and has recently evolved into the 
study of neutral motions in the troposphere and 
stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere us- 
ing Doppler backscatter radar techniques and 
observation of the Doppler shifts of airglow lines. 

Referenced below are pertinent papers, and ar- 
ticles from 1968 through 1975. NOAA authors are 
italicized. 

1. Reid, G. C.The formation of small-scale irregularities in the 
ionosphere. J. Geophysic Res.. Space Physics 73, No. 5, 1627- 
1640. l968.(Numberof citations: 58.) 

2. Balsley. B. B.Some characteristics of non-two stream irregu- 
larities in the equatorial electrojet, J. Geophys. Res., 1969. (50.) 

3. McClure. J. P.. Diurnal variation of neutral and charged parti- 
cle temperatures in the equatorial F region, J. Geophys. Res. 74, 
279, 1969.(43.) 

4. Balsley. B. B. and Woodman, R. F., On the control of the F- 
region drift velocity by the E-region electric field experimental 
evidence. J. Atmos.Terres. Phys. 31,865-867, 1969.(41.) 

5. Farley. D. T.. Balsley. B. B.. Woodman, R. F., and McClure. 
J. P.. Equatorial spread F: Implications of VHF radar observa- 
tions, J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 75. No. 34, 7199-7216. 1970 
(33.) 

COMMERCE 35 


6 Peterson. V. L. and VanZandt. T. £..0(1D) quenching in the 
ionospheric F region. Planetary Space Sci. 17. 1725-1736. 1969. 
0\.) 

7. Balsley. B. B. Nighttime electric fields and vertical ionospher- 
ic drifts near the magnetic equator. J. Geophys. Res. 74, \.\i. 
1%9.(29.) 

8. Woodman, R. F. and Hugfors. T.. Methods for the measure- 
ment of vertical ionospheric motions near the magnetic equator 
by incoherent scattering. J. Geophys. Res. 74. 120.';. 1969. (29 ) 

9. VanZandt. T. E. and Peterson. V. L.. Detailed maps of tropi- 
cal 6^00A nightglow enhancements and their implications on the 
ionospheric F2 layer. Ann. Geophys. 24. 747. 1968. (28.) 

10 Balsley. B. B. and Farley. D. T. . Radar studies of the equato- 
rial electrojet at three frequencies. J. Geophys. Res. 76. No. .^4. 
834I-8.\M. 1971.(27.) 

11. Waldteufel. P. and McClure. J. P.. Preliminary comparison 
of middle and low latitude Thomson scatter data, Ann. Geophys. 
2.5,785, 1969.(24.) 

I -> Balsley. B. B. and Ecklund. W. L. , V H F power spectra of the 
radar aurora. J. Geophys. Res. 77. 4746, 1972. (22.) 

13 Farley D T and Balslev. B. B.. Instabilities in the equatorial 
eIectrojet,J.Geophys.Res.'78.No. 1.227-2.39. 1973.(21.) 


Geophysical Fluid Dynamics 

The NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Labo- 
ratory (GFDL) has conducted a broad program of 
research on mathematical modeling of the general 
circulation of the atmosphere, the oceans, and the 
ocean-atmosphere system throughout the entire 
10-year period. With one of the world's largest and 
fastest computers, GFDL scientists have investi- 
gated the dynamics of geophysical fluids over a 
wide range of time and space scales. The studies 
are comprised of research on the structure and 
circulation of planetary fluid systems — the tro- 
posphere, the upper atmosphere, and the oceans. 

Below are papers and articles from 1968 through 
1975. NOAA authors are italicized. 

1. Oort. A. H. and Rasmusson. E. M.. Atmospheric Circula- 
tion Statistics. NOAA Professional Paper e. 1971. (Number of 
citations: 57.) 

2. Bryan K. and Cox. M. D. A nonlinear model of an ocean 
driven by wind and differential heating: Part 1, Description of 
the three-dimensional velocity and density fields, J. of Atmos. 
Sci. 945-%7, 1%8. (46.) 

3. Manabe. S.. Smagorinsky. J.. Holloway. J. L.. and Stone. 
H. M.. Simulated climatology of a general circulation model 
with a hydrologic cycle: III, Effects of increased horizontal 
computational resolution. Monthly Weather Rev., 175-212. 
1970. (46.) 

4. Manabe. S.. Holloway. J. L.. and Stone. H. M.. Tropical 
circulation in a time-integration of a global model of the at- 
mosphere, J. of Atmos. Sci., .580-613, 1970. (43.) 

5. Williams, G. P.. Numerical integration of the three-dimen- 
sional Navier-Stokes equation for incompressible flow, J. Fluid 

Mech, 727-750, 1969. (.39.) 

6. Matsusuno, T., A dynamic model of the stratospheric sud- 
den wanning, J. of Atmos. Sci., 1479-1494. 1971.(37.) 


7. Oort. A. H. and Rasmusson. E. M.. On the annual varia- 
tion of the monthly mean meridional circulation. Monthly 
Weather Rev.. 42.3-442. 1970. (.V<i.) 

8. Manabe. S. and Hunt. B. G.. Experiments with a strato- 
spheric general circulation model: I. Radiative and dynamic 
aspects. Monthly Weather Rev.. 477.502. 1968. (32.) 

9. Miyakoda. K.. Smagorinsky. J.. Stricklev. R. F.. and 
Hembree. G. D.. Experimental extended predictions with a 
nine-level hemispheric model. Monthly Weather Rev.. 1-76. 
1969. (30.) 

10. Smagorinsky. J.. Problems and promises of deterministic 
extended range forecasting. Bulletin of AMS, 286-311, 1969. 
(.30.) 

11. Orlanski. I. and Bryan. K.. Formation of the thermocline 
step structure of large amplitude internal gravity waves, J. 
Geophys. Res., 6975-6983, 1969. (24.) 

12. Rowntrec. P. R.. The influence of tropical East Pacific 
Ocean temperatures on the atmosphere. Quarterly J. of Royal 
Meteor. Soc, 290-321. 1972. (23.) 

13. Manabe. S.. Climate and the ocean circulation: I, The 
atmospheric circulation and the hydrology of the Earths sur- 
face. Monthly Weather Rev., 739-774. 1969. (22.) 

14. Bryan. K.. Climate and the ocean circulation: III, The 
ocean model. Monthly Weather Rev., 806-827. 1969. (20.) 

Structure and Motion of the Oceans 

This program investigates the structure, veloci- 
ty, extent, and variation of nearshore and ocean 
currents in order to predict the measurement of 
water, heat, living resources, and pollutants. This 
work is an essential element in understanding the 
ocean's role in climatic variations. Investigations 
include: (1) studies of the time and space varia- 
tions of currents and on the physical properties 
and chemical characteristics of nearshore and 
oceanic waters, utilizing current meters, drifting 
instrumented buoys, satellite imagery, tide gages, 
and water sampling devices: (2) studies using 
deep-sea pressure gages to investigate the various 
scales of motion in the ocean and the tidal modifi- 
cations induced by the Continental Shelf: (3) 
measurement of exchange rates among the Gulf 
of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and the Atlantic 
Ocean and of the coastal discharge and dispersion 
of pollutants. 

Papers and articles on this subject follow: 

1. Jalickee. John B., Douglas R. Hamilton, Objective Analysis 
and Classification of Oceanic Data, Tellus (to be published). 

2. Chew, Frank. William S. Richardson, and George A. Ber- 
berian, A Comparison of Direct and Electric-Current Measure- 
ments in the Florida Current: Journal of Marine Research 29, 
No. 3, -3.39-.346. 

3. Jelesnianski, Chester P., 'Bottom stress lime-history" in 
linearized equations of motion for storm surges: Monthly 
Weather Review 98. No. 6, 462-478. 

4. McLeish, William, Spatial spectra of ocean surface temper- 
ature: J. Geophys. Res. 7.5, No. .33. 6872-6877. 


36 


COMMERCE 


5. Wunsch. C. D. V. H:inson. and B. D. Zeller. Fliiclualions 
of the Florida current inferred from sea level records: Deep 
Sea Res. 16. Suppl. 447-470. 

6 McAlister, K D., and William McLeish. Heal transfer in 
the top millimeter of the ocean: J. Geophys Res. 7-t. No. 1.^, 
3408-3414 

7. Laird. Norman P.. Anomalous temperature of bottom water 
in the Panama Basin: J. Marine Res. 27. No. 3, 35.'i-3,'i7. 

8. Laird. N. P. and T. V. Ryan, Bottom current measure- 
ments in the Tasman Sea: J. Geophys. Res. 74. No. 23. 5433- 
.'1438. 

9. Hanson. Donald V. and Maurice Rattray. Jr.. Estuarine 
Circulation Induced by Diffusion; Journal of Marine Research 
30. No. 3. 281-294. 

Stimulation of Resonances and Nonlinear 
Theory of Turbulence in the Ionosphere 

The first observations of the ionosphere by top- 
side sounder satellites revealed heretofore unob- 
served resonances in the ionogram records. Scien- 
tists from the NOAA Aeronomy Laboratory ex- 
plained theoretically and verified experimentally 
the mechanism for the stimulation of resonances 
near the natural plasma frequencies (Refs. 1-3). 

NOAA's Aeronomy Laboratory has been active 
in the theoretical explanation of turbulence, irre- 
gularities, and nonlinear wave interactions in the 
ionosphere using nonlinear perturbed orbit theory 
(Refs. 1-4). Attention has recently shifted to the 
application of similar mathematical techniques to 
the fundamental theory of neutral atmospheric 
turbulence and waves. 

Referenced below are pertinent papers and arti- 
cles (1968-1975). NOAA authors are italicized. 

1. McAfee. J. R.. Ray trajectories in an anisotropic plasma 
near plasma resonance, J. Geophys. Res. 73. 5.577. 1968. 
(Number of citations: 31.) 

2. McAfee. J. R.. Topside ray trajectories near the upper hy- 
grid resonance. J. Geophys. Res. 74. No. 2h, 6403-6408. 1969. 
(21.1 

3. McAfee. J. R.. Topside resonances as oblique echoes, J 
Geophys. Res. 74. 802. 1969. (28.) 

4 Wein-ilock. J . Formulation of a statistical theory of strong 
plasma turbulence. Physics of Fluids, 1969. (55.) 

5. Weinstock. J.. Turbulent diffusion, particle orbits, and field 
fluctuations in a plasma in a magnetic field. Phys. Fluids II. 
1977, 1968. (.30.) 

6. Bezzerides. B. and Weinstock. J . Nonlinear saturation of 
parametric instabilities. Phys. Rev. Letters 28. No. 8. 481-484. 
1972. (22.) 

7. Skadron. G. and Weinslock. J.. Nonlinear stabilization of a 
Iwo-stream plasma instability in the ionosphere, J. Geophys. 
Res. 74, No. 21, 51 13-5126, 1969. (20.) 

Laboratory Measurements of Ion-Neutral 
Reactions 

Laboratory techniques developed since 1962 in 


NOAA's Aeronomy Laboratory have led to most 
of the available data on ion-neutral reactions that 
control the ion composition of the Earth's iono- 
sphere and also the ionospheres of Mars and Ve- 
nus. The principal technique developed, called the 
Flowing Afterglow Technique, has been widely 
copied in other laboratories where, in addition to 
its contributions to aeronomy, it is playing a valu- 
able role in chemical kinetics generally, supplying 
reaction rate constants and thermochemical data 
for inorganic and organic systems. The flowing 
afterglow, originally capable of measuring reac- 
tion rates at room temperature only, was fash- 
ioned to operate from 80° to 900°K (Ref. 2), the 
widest range of temperature yet achieved by any 
method. Recently the experimental technology 
has been extended by the development of the so- 
called Flow-Drift tube, the combination of a flow- 
ing afterglow system with a drift tube (Ref. 15); 
this allows the energy dependence of ion-molecule 
reactions to be measured from 300° to several 
electron volts relative to ion kinetic energy. The 
ion-molecule reaction rate continues but emphasis 
has shifted to the measurement of neutral reaction 
rates important in the hydrogen, nitrogen, chlor- 
ine, and sulfur chemistry cycles of the strato- 
sphere. 

Referenced below are papers and articles from 
1968 through 1975 concerning ion-neutral reac- 
tions. NOAA authors are italicized. 


1. McDaniel, Cermak. Dalgarno. Ferguson, and Friedman, Ion 
Molecule Reactions, book by John Wiley Publ., 1970. (Num- 
ber of citations: 113.) 

2. Dunkin. Fehsenfeld. Schmeltekopf. and Ferguson. Ion mo- 
lecule reaction studies from 300 to 600°K in temperature con- 
trolled flowing afterglow system, J. Chem. Rhys., 1968. (97.) 

3. Schmeltekopf. Ferguson and Fehsenfeld. Afterglow studies 
of the reactions of He+, He^S, and 0+ with vibrationally ex- 
cited N,, J. Chem. Phys., 1968. (92.) 

4. Ferguson, Fehsenfeld and Schmeltekopf. Flowing afterglow 
measurements of ion-neutral reactions. Chapter of book Ad- 
vances In Atomic and Molecular Physics, Academic Press, 
1969. (83.) 

5. Fehsenfeld and Ferguson. Origin of water cluster ions in 
the D region, J. Geophys. Res., 1969. (57.) 

6. Schmeltekopf and Fehsenfeld. De-excitation rate constants 
for helium metastable atoms with several atoms and mole- 
cules, J. Chem. Phys., 1970. (53.) 

7. Ferguson and Fehsenfeld. Water vapor ion cluster concen- 
trations in the D region, J. Geophys. Res. 1969. (51.) 

8. Fehsenfeld. Dunkin, and Ferguson. Rale constant for the 
reaction of CO, with O, O,, and NO; N2 with O and NO; and 
O, with NO, Planet. Space'Sci., 1970. (51.) 

9. Ferguson. Thermal energy ion-molecule reactions. Chapter 
in book Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics, 1968. 

(47.) 


COMMERCE 37 


10. Bohme. Dunkin. Fehsenfeld. and Ferguson. Flowing after- 
glow studies of ion-molecule association reactions. J. Chem. 
Phys.. 1969. (46.) 

11. Fehsenfeld. Ferguson, and Bohme. Additional flowing af- 
terglow measuretnents of negative ion reactions of D region 
interest. Planet. Space Sci., 1969. (45.) 

12. Adams, N. G., Bohme. D. K.. Dunkin. D. B.. Fehsenfeld. 
F. C and Ferguson. E. E.. Flowing afterglow studies of for- 
mation and reactions of cluster ions of O+i, O-., and O , J. 
Chem. Phys. 52, No. 6, 3133-3140. 1970. (38.) 

13. Fehsenfeld. F. C Electron attachment to SF^,, J. Chem. 
Phys. .53, No. 5, 2000-2004, 1970. (34.) 

14. Fehsenfeld. F. C. Albritton. D. L.. Burt. J. A., and 
SchifT, H. I., Associative-detachment reactions of O and O by 
O ( ), Can. J. Chem. 47, 1793, 1969. (33.) 

15. McFarland, M. Albritton, D. L.. Fehsenfeld. F. C. Fergu- 
son. E. E.. and Schmeltekopf. A. L.. Flow-drift technique for 
ion mobility and ion-molecule reaction rate constant measure- 
ments II. Positive ion reactions of N+, 0+, and N+t with Ot 
and 0+ with N^ from thermal to 2eV, J. Chem. Phys. 59. No. 
12,6620-6628, 1973. (33.) 

16. Hotop, H., Niehaus, A., and Schmeltekopf. A. L.. Reac- 
tions of excited atoms and molecules with atoms and mole- 
cules III. Relative cross sections for penning and associative 
ionization by He ( ) and He (2 S)^ metastables, Z. Physik 229, 
1, 1969. (30.) 

\1 .Ferguson. E. E.. Negative ion-molecule reactions. Can. J. 
Chem. 47, 1815, 1969. (30.) 

18. Albritton. D. L.. Miller, T. M., Martin, D. W.. and Mc- 
Daniel, E. W,, Mobilities of mass-identified H + , and H ions in 
hydrogen, Phys. Rev. 171, 94, 1968. (28.) 

19. Fehsenfeld. F. C. and Ferguson. E. E.. Further laboratory 
measurements of negative reactions of atmospheric interest. 
Planetary and Space Sci. 16, No. 5, 701-702, 1968. (26.) 

20. Ferguson. E. E. and Fehsenfeld. F. C. Some aspects of 
the metal ion chemistry of the earths atmosphere, J. Geo- 
phys. Res. 73, 6215, 1968. (25.) 

21. Ferguson. E. E.. Bohme. D. K.. Fehsenfeld. F. C. and 
Dunkin. D. S, Temperature dependence of slow ion-atom in- 
terchange reactions, J. Chem. Phys. 50, 5039, 1969. (25.) 

22. Dunkin. D. B.. Fehsenfeld. F. C. Schmeltekopf. A. L.. 
and Ferguson. E. E., Three-body association reactions of 
N0+ with O-,, N., and CO.. J. Chem. Phys. 54, No. 9, 3817- 
3822, 1971. (25.) 

23. Ferguson. E. E.. Fehsenfeld. F. C. and Schmeltekopf. 
A. L.. Ion-molecule reaction rates measured in a discharge 
afterglow. Adv. in Chem. Series 80, 83, 1969. (24.) 

24. Henderson. W. R.. Fite, W. L., and Brackmann, R. T., 
Dissociative attachment of electrons to hot oxygen, Phys. 
Rev. 183, 157, 1969. (24.) 

25. Fehsenfeld. F. C. Schmeltekopf. A. L.. Dunkin. D. B.. 
and Ferguson. E. E.. Compilation of reaction rate constants 
measured in the ESSA flowing afterglow system to August, 
1969, TR ERL 135-AL 3, 1969. (22.) 

26. Fehsenfeld. F. C. Moseman, M., and Ferguson, E. E., 
Ion-molecule reactions in an 0+i -H->() system, J. Chem. Phys. 
55, No. 5, 2115-2120, 1971. (22.)" 

27 Bohme. D. K.. Adams, N. G., Moseman, M., Dunkin. D. 

38 COMMERCE 


B.. and Ferguson. E. E.. Flowing afterglow studies of the re- 
action of the rare-gas molecular ions He + i. Ne+i. and Ar+i 
with molecules and rare gas atoms. J. Chem Phys 52 No lO" 
.5094-5101, 1970. (21.) 

28. Spears. K. C. Ion-neutral bonding, J. Chem. Phys. 57, No. 
5, 1850. 1972. (20.) 

Remote Sensing Techniques, Temperature 
Sensing, Optical Scintillations 

The NOAA Wave Propagation Laboratory, at 
the inception of NOAA, was oriented toward re- 
search on the effects of the environment on the 
propagation of electromagnetic waves. Through 
the past 10 years, the orientation has been re- 
versed in order to undertake research concerning 
the use of the effects on acoustic and electromag- 
netic waves to probe the atmosphere and the 
oceans, i.e., remote sensing (Ref. I). The devel- 
opment of the acoustic sounder (Ref. 2), pulse 
Doppler weather radars, the FM-CW Doppler 
radar and the Doppler lidar have been notable 
accomplishments (Ref. 3). The emphasis is now 
shifting from instrument development toward the 
use of these remote sensing instruments and their 
unique capabilities for research toward a better 
understanding of the geophysical environment. 

Mathematicians in NOAA's Wave Propagation 
Laboratory have had a continuing interest in the 
mathematical techniques for the retrieval of at- 
mospheric temperature profiles from observations 
of the infrared emission of the atmosphere at sev- 
eral wave lengths emitted from different atmos- 
pheric depths. The techniques have had applica- 
tion to the remote sensing of atmospheric temper- 
ature profiles from satellites (Refs. 4, 5. 6). 

The Optical Propagation Group at NOAA's 
Wave Propagation Laboratory, originally interest- 
ed in the effect of a turbulent atmosphere on the 
propagation of light, has applied this knowledge 
to remote sensing of atmospheric winds and tur- 
bulence and, most recently, rainfall rate and rain- 
drop site distribution by means of optical beams 
as viewed in the forward propagation direction. 
As well as the experimental work, the group has 
made major progress in developing and extending 
the theory of scintillations in a turbulent medium, 
including the explanation of the saturation effect 
of optical scintillations (Refs. 7-12). 

Referenced below are pertinent papers and arti- 
cles (1968-75). NOAA authors are italicized. 


1. Derr. V. E.. Remote Sensing of the Troposphere. Ed., CU/ 
NOAA Course Textbook, 1972. (Number of citations: 54.) 

2. Little. C. G.. Acoustic methods for remote probing of the 
lower atmosphere, Proc. IEEE, .571-576, 1969. (32.) 

3. Derr. V. E. and Little. C. G.. A comparison of remote sens- 
ing of the clear atmosphere by optical, radio, and acoustic radar 
techniques. Appl. Optics. 1976-1992. 1970.(28.) 


4. Strand. O. N. and Westwater. E. R. .The statistical estima- 
tion of the numerical solution of a Fredholm integral equation 
of the 1st kind. J. Assoc, for Comp. Mach.. I(X)-II4. 19(,X. 
(31.) 

5. Strand. O. N. and Westwater. E. R.. Minimum-RMS esti- 
mation of the numerical solution of a Fredholm integral equa- 
tion of the 1st kind, SIAM, J. Num. Analy., 287-295. 1968. 

(21.) 

6. Westwater. E. R. and Strand. O. /V. Statistical information 
content of radiation measurements used in indirect sensing. J. 
Atmos. Sci.. 7.M)-758. 1968. (20.) 

7 Lawrence. R. W. and Strohhehn. J. W, A survey of clear- 
air propagation effects relevant to optical communications. 
Proc. IEEE. I.S2.V|54.'i. 1970. (57.) 

8. Ochs, G. R. and Lawrence. R. S.. Saturation of laser- 
beam scintillation under conditions of strong atmospheric tur- 
bulence, JOSA, 226-227. 1969. (37.) 

9. Lawrence. R. S.. Ochs. G. R. and Clifford. S. F.. Mea- 
surements of atmospheric turbulence relevant to optical propa- 
gation, JOSA, 826-830, 1970. (23.) 

10. Ocfis. G R.. Bergman. R. R, and Snyder. J. R., Laser- 
beam scintillation over horizontal paths from 5.5 to 145 km. 
JOSA. 231-234, 1969. (23.) 

11. Clifford. S. F., Temporal-frequency spectra for a spherical 
wave propagating through atmospheric turbulence, JOSA, 
1285-1292, 1971. (22.) 

12. Clifford. S. F.. Bouricius. G. M. B.. Ochs. G. R. and 
Ackley. M. H.. Phase variations in atmospheric optical propa- 
gation. JOSA. 1279-1284. 1971. (20.1 

Plate Tectonics 

Scientists with the marine geophysics program, 
in the Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological 
Laboratories, were among the very early 
proponents of plate tectonic theory and 
continental drift, particularly in the use of ocean 
bottom and continental shelf topography to make 
detailed fits of the present continents into the 
proto continent, Pangaea, prior to breakup. 

Listed below are pertinent papers and articles 
(1968-1975). NOAA authors are italicized. 

1. Dielz. R. S. and Holden. J. C Reconstruction of Pangaea: 
Breakup and dispersion of continents, Permian to present. J. 
Geophys. Res.. 49.W-4950, 1970. (Number of citations: 157.) 

2. Dietz. R. S. and Holden. J. C, The breakup of Pangaea, 
Scientific American, 30-41, 1970. (37.) 

3. Sproll. W. P. and Dietz. R. S.. Morphological continental 
drift fit of Australia and Antarctica. Nature, 345-348, 1969. 
(36.) 

4. Dietz. R. S.. Holden. J. C. and Sproll. W. P.. Geotectonic 
evolution and subsidence of Bahama Platform, Geol. Soc. 
Amer. Bulletin, 1915-1927, 1970. (31.) 

5. Rona. P. A.. Comparison of continental margins of eastern 
North America at Cape Hatteras and north-western Africa at 
Cape Blanc, Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geo. Bulletin, 129-157, 
1970. (31.) 

6. Freeland. G. L. and Dietz. R. S.. Plate tectonic evolution 
of Caribbean-Gulf of Mexico region. Nature, 20-23, 1971. (28.) 


7. Dietz. R. S. and Sproll. W. P.. Fit between Africa and Ant- 
arctica: A continental drift reconstruction. Science, 1612-1614, 
1970. (23.) 

8. Grim. P. J.. Connection of the Panama fracture zone with 
the Galapagos rift zone, eastern tropical Pacific, Marine Geo- 
phys. Res. 85-90, 1970. (21.) 

Subprograms of the Global Atmospheric 
Research Program— GATE, BOMEX 

The Barbados oceanographic and meteorologi- 
cal experiment (BOMEX) was a large-scale air-sea 
interaction field experiment conducted in the vi- 
cinity of the island of Barbados in late spring and 
early summer of 1969 and involved the coordinat- 
ed talents and resources of Federal agencies and 
academic institutions. The primary objectives 
were to study the total ocean-atmosphere system 
within a limited oceanic area and to develop a pi- 
lot field study that may be used for planning and 
executing similar experiments in the future within 
the framework of the long-range global atmos- 
pheric research program (GARP) of the I970"s. 

Field work for the GARP Atlantic tropical ex- 
periment (GATE) in the eastern tropical North 
Atlantic was completed in 1974 in collaboration 
with many national and international research 
groups. The objectives were to define the small- 
scale convection and other processes occurring in 
the atmosphere and upper ocean, and to parame- 
terize these phenomena in large-scale atmosphere 
and ocean circulation models. 

Papers and articles on BOMEX are listed be- 
low: 

1. Ching, Jason, "Determining the Drag Coefficient for Vorti- 
city. Momentum, and Mass Budget Analysis," / Atmos. Sci.. 
Vol. 32. pp. 1898-1908 (1975). 

2. Delnore, Victor E., "Diurnal Variation of Temperature and 
Energy Budget for the Oceanic Mixed Layer during 
BOMEX," J. Phys. Oceanogr.. Vol. 2, pp. 476-486 (1972). 

3. Holland, Joshua 7... "Comparative Evaluation of Some 
BOMEX Measurements of Sea Surface Evaporation, Energy 
Flux and Stress," / Phys. Oceanogr.. Vol. 2, pp. 476-486 
(1972). 

4. Holland, Joshua Z., and Eugene M. Rasmusson, 
"Measurements of the Atmospheric Mass, Energy, and 
Momentum Budgets over a 5(K)-Kilomeler Square of Tropical 
Ocean," Mon. Wea. Rev.. Vol. 101, pp. 44-55 (1973). 

5. Jalickee, J. B., and E. M. Rasmusson, "An Atmospheric 
Budget Analysis Scheme," Proc. Third Conf. Probability and 
Stat.. Amer. Meteorol. Soc. (1973). 

6. Reeves, Robert W., "The Influence of Differential 
Temperature Advection on the Trade Inversion during 
BOMEX," accepted by J. Atmos. Sci. 

Papers and articles on GATE are listed below: 

I. Aspliden, C. L. Y Tourre and J. B. Sabine 1976: Some 
Climatological Aspects of West African Disturbance Lines 
during GATE. Monthly Weather Review. Volume 104. No. 8, 
pp. 1025-1029. 

COMMERCE 39 


2. Burpee. R. W., 1975: Some Features of Synoplic-Scale 
Waves Based on a Compositing Analysis of GATE Data 
Monthly Weather Review . Volume 103. No. 10. pp 921-925. 

.t. Duing. W. P Hisard, E Katz. J. Meincke, L. Miller. K. V. 
Moroshkin. G Philander. A. A. Ribnikov. K. Voigt. and R 
Weisberg. 1975: Meanders and Long Waves in the Equatorial 
Atlantic. Nature. Volume 257. pp 280-284. 

4. Gruber. A. 1976: An Estimate of the Daily Variation of 
Cloudiness over the GATE A/B Area. Monthly Weather 
Review. Volume 104. No. 8. pp. 10.^6-10.^9. 

5. Julian. P. R.. and R Steinberg, 1975: Commercial Aircraft 
as a Source of Automated Meteorological Data for GATE and 
DST Bulletin of the Aweriain Meteorological Society . 
Volume 56. No. 2. pp. 243-251. 

6. Kuhn. P. M.. H. K. Weichmann, and L. P. Stearns. 1975: 
Longwave Radiation Effects of the Harmattan Haze. Journal 
of Geophysical Research. Volume 80, No. 24, pp. 34I9-342.V 

7. Merceret, F. J.. 1976: Airborne Hot-Film Measurements of 
the Small-Scale Structure of Atmospheric Turbulence During 
GATE. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences. Volume 33. No 9, 
pp. 1741-1746. 

8. Mercerel, F. J . 1976: Measuring Atmospheric Turbulence 
with Airborne Hot-Film Anemometers. Journal of Applied 
Meteorology. Volume 15. No. 5, pp. 482-490. 

9. Miyakoda, F., L. Umscheid, D H. Lee, J. Sirutis, R. 
Lusen, and F Pratte, 1976: The Near Real-Time, Global Four 
Dimensional Analysis Experiment during the GATE Period, 
Part I. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences. Volume 33, No 4, 
pp. 56 1 -.59 1. 

10 Young. J A.. 1976: Wind Observations from the USNS 
VANGUARD during GATE Phase L Monthly Weather 
Rev/ew. Volume 104, No. 3, pp. 316-320. 


3. The Measurement of Ambient Air Temperature with Aspi- 
rated and Unaspirated Thermocouples in the Field. Vaughn, 
Harry C. and C. M. Sakamola, Iowa Journal of Science. 

4. Application of the Poisson and Negative Binomial Models 
to Thunderstorm and Hail Days Probabilities in Nevada. 
Sakamota, Clarence M., Monthly Weather Review. Vol. 101. 
No. 4. 1973. 

5. Climatic Effects. Impacts of Climatic Change on the Bio- 
sphere. "Wheat" by Ramirez, J. N., C. M. Sakamota and R. 
E Jensen, Section 4.1.2 ClAP Monograph 5, Part 2. 
Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, pp. 4-37 to 
4-90. September 1975. 

6. J Murray Mitchell. Jr.. An Overview of Climatic Variahili- 
t\ and Its Casual Mechanisms. University of Washington. 
Quaternary Research 6, 481-493, September 1976. 

7. J. Murray Mitchell. Jr., ,4 Reassessment of Atmospheric 
Pollution as a Cause of Long-Term Changes of Global Tem- 
perature. S. Fred Singer (ed). The Changing Global Environ- 
ment. 149-173, D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, 
Holland, 1975. 

S J Murray Mitchell. Jr.. Observed Variability of the Climat- 
ic System. WMO GARP Publication Series, No. 16. pp. 4-12. 
April 1975. 

9. J. Murray Mitchell. Jr., Note on Solar Variability and \'ol- 
canic .Activity as Potential Sources of Climatic Variability. 
WMO GARP Publication Series. No. 16. 127-131, April 1975. 

10 J. Murray Mitchell, Jr.. The Effect of Atmospheric Aero- 
sols on Climate with Special Reference to Temperature Near 
the Earth's Surface. Journal of Applied Meteorology. Vol 10. 
No. 4, pp. 703-714. August 1971. 

11. J Murray Mitchell, Jr.. The Global Cooling Effect of In- 
creasing Atmospheric Aerosols: Fact or Fiction. WMO Publi- 
cation .347. .August 1971. 


Climate Effects of Atmospheric Aerosols and 
Pollutants on Global Temperature 

NOAA's climate research is pursued primarily 
through theoretical studies, empirical analyses, 
and numerical simulation. Research activity in- 
cluded the analysis of the 15-year global atmos- 
pheric data set from 1958 to 1973 to provide a 
definitive determination of inteiannual climate 
variability and to relate local anomalies such as 
droughts to anomalies in the surface temperature 
and in the snow and ice cover. One part of the 
program deals with the measurement and predic- 
tion of atmospheric carbon dioxide, whose inexo- 
rable increase may lead to significant global 
warming within the next 25 to 50 years unless pro- 
jected fossil fuel combustion rates are radically 
reduced. 

Pertinent papers and articles are listed below: 

1. Economic Impacts of Weather Variability. Columbia: 
University of Missouri. Department of Atmospheric Science 
1975. 

2. Light Distribution in Field Soybean Canopies. Sakamota. 
Clarence M. and R. H. Shaw. Agronomy Journal. Vol. 59, pp. 
7-9, 1967 

40 COMMERCE 


The International Field Year of the Great 
Lakes (IFYGL) 

IFYGL was a joint American-Canadian contri- 
bution to the International Hydrologic Decade. 
The major purpose of the joint study was to de- 
velop a scientific basis for water resource man- 
agement on the Great Lakes as an aid in solving 
problems of water quantity and quality. Lake 
Ontario was selected as a representative lake. A 
series of studies on the hydrology, physics, chem- 
istry, and biology of the lake as well as investiga- 
tions of the effects of ice and lake storms provide 
information necessary to help make sound man- 
agement decisions relating to navigation, hydro- 
power, public water supply, waste disposal, recre- 
ation, fish productivity, highway transportation, 
and the operation of port facilities. IFYGL em- 
phasized the interrelationships between the cur- 
rents and thermal structures and the chemical and 
biological processes. 

Papers and articles by NOAA authors or by 
authors supported by NOAA funds appear below: 

I. Bean, B. R.. C. B. Emmanuel. R. O. Gilmer, and R. E. 
McGavin, "The Spatial and Temporal Variations of Heat, 


Momenliiiti and Water Vapor over Lake Ontario." Journal of 
PhysiaiKX-eunography. Vol. 5. No. .1. July 1974, pp. .S.-!2-.S40. 

2 Csanady, G. T.. "The Coastal Boundary Layer in Lake 
Ontario: Part IL The Summer-Fall Regime." Journal of Physi- 
ail Oceanography. Vol. 2. No. 2. 1972, pp. 168-176. 

^. Csanady. G. T., "Equilibrium Theory of the Planetary 
Boundary Layer with an Inversion Lid." Boundary Layer 
Meteorology. Vol. 6. 1974, pp. 6.'!-79. 

4. Csanady, G. T.. "Lateral Momentum Flux in Boundary 
Currents." Woods Hole Conlribulion No. -M09. Woods Hole 
Oceanographic Institute. Woods Hole. Massachusetts. 1974, 29 
pp. and Journal of Physical Oceanography. Vol. .^, No. 4. 
October 197.'!, pp. 70.'i-7l7. 

.S. Csanady. G. T., "The Roughness of the Sea Surface in 
Light Winds." Journal of Geophysical Research. Vol. 79, No. 
IX, 1974. pp. 2747-27.SI. 

6. Csanady, G. T., "Wind-Induced Barotropic Motions in 
Long Lakes." Journal of Physical Oceanography. Vol. }. No. 

4, 197.1, pp. 429-4.'(8. 

7 Pickett. R. L and F. P Richards, "Lake Ontario Mean 
Temperatures and Currents in July 1972," Journal of Physical 
Oceanography. Vol. S. No. 4. October 197.<i. pp. 77.';-781. 

5. Wilson, J. W. and D. M. Pollock. "Rainfall Measurements 
durmg Hurricane Agnes Using Three Overlapping Radars," 
Journal of Applied Meteorology. Vol. \}. No. 8, 1974, pp. H}fi- 
844. 

9. Ching, Jason K. S.. "A Study of Lake-Land Breeze Circu- 
lation over Lake Ontario from IFYGL Buoy Observations." 
Proc 17th Conf. Great Lakes Research 1974. pp. 2-'>9-268. 

10 Chen, W. Y . "Analysis of Vorticity and Divergence 
Fields and Other Meteorological Parameters over Lake Onta- 
rio during IFYGL," accepted by J Appl. Meteorol. 

1 I. Jalickee, John B., Jason K. S. Ching. and James A. Alma- 
zan, "Objective Analysis of IFYGL Surface Meteorological 
Data," Proc. 17th Conf. Great Lakes Research 1974. pp. i:^},- 
150. 

12. Chen. W, Y., "Effect of Non-Stationarity of the Wind 
Field on Values of the Drag Coefficient," Paper presented at 
20lh Conf on Great Lakes. Ann Arbor, Michigan, May 1977. 

Hurricanes, Convective Clouds, Precipitation 
Processes 

The weather modification research program 
conducted by NOAA is aimed primarily at devel- 
oping a sound, scientific basis for practical weath- 
er modification through theoretical studies, labora- 
tory investigations, computer modeling of severe 
storms and convective cloud processes, and con- 
firmation by experimental field projects. The ef- 
fort concentrated on: (I) Mitigation of damage 
caused by hurricanes and severe convective 
storms including extratropical cyclonic systems; 
(2) the modification of convective clouds in a sub- 
tropical environment (Florida) to increase rainfall; 
and (3) research on the physics and chemistry of 
cloud and precipitation processes. 

Pertinent papers and articles appear below: 

I. Anthes, Richard A,, The role of large-scale asymmetries and 


internal mixing in computing meridional circulations associated 
with the steady-state hurricanes: Monthly Weather Review 98. 
No. 7, .'52l-.<i28. 

2 Gentry. R. Cecil. Hurricane Debbie modification experi- 
ments. August 1969: Science 168. April 24, 47.1-47.'i. 

^. Woodley, William L., Precipitation results from pyrotech- 
nic cumulus seeding experiment: Journal of Applied Meteorol- 
ogy 9. No. 2, 242-2.';7, 

4 Black, Peter G.. H. V. Senn, and C. L. Courtnght. Air- 
borne Radar Observations of Eye Configuration Changes, 
Bright Band Distribution, and Precipitation Tilt during the 1969 
Multiple Seeding Experiment in Hurricane Debbie: Monthly 
Weather Review 100. No. .1, 208-217. 

.s Gentry, R. Cecil. Project STORMFURY: Bull. Am. Me- 
teorol. Soc. .W, No. 6, 404-409. 

6. Simpson, Joanne, and Victor Wiggert. Models of precipita- 
tion cumulus towers: Monthly Weather Review 97. No. 7, 471- 
489. 

7. .Scott, W. D. and Zev Levin. The effect of potential gra- 
dient on the charge separation during interactions of snow 
crystals with an ice sphere: Journal of Atmospheric Sciences 

27. No. .?. 46.V47.V 

8 Gentry. R. Cecil, Tetsuya T. Fujita, and Robert C. Sheets. 
Aircraft, spacecraft, satellite and radar observations of Hurri- 
cane Gladys, 1968: Journal of Applied Meteorology 9. No. 6. 
8.17-8.<iO. 

Thermospheric Studies 

Studies of the neutral composition, ion compo- 
sition, and temperature of the thermosphere have 
been carried out by the NOAA Aeronomy Labo- 
ratory using ground-based airglow observations 
(Refs. 2, 3). Solar occultation by the earth as seen 
from a satellite (Ref. 4) and theoretical chemical 
analysis (Ref, 1) have been carried out since 1968, 
and the satellite and airglow studies are continu- 
ing. 

Pertinent papers and articles (1968-1975) are 
referenced below. NOAA authors are italicized. 

1. Norton and Barth, Theory of nitric oxide in earth's atmo- 
sphere, J. Geophys. Res., 1970. (Number of citations: 54.) 

2. Norton. R. B. and Findlay. J. A., Electron density and 
temperatures in the vicinity of the 29 September 1967 middle 
latitude red arc. Planetary Space Sci. 17, 1867-1877, 1969. (29.) 

■(. Noxon. J. F. and Johanson. A. E., Changes in thermo- 
spheric molecular oxygen abundance inferred from twilight 
6.100A airglow. Planetary Space Sci. 20, 2125-2 l.'^l, 1972. (23.) 

4. Roble, R. G. and Norton. R. B.. Thermospheric molecular 
oxygen from solar extreme-ultraviolet occultation measure- 
ments. J. Geophys. Res. 77. No. 19, 3.'i24-.V'i.13. 1972. (21.) 

Other Projects 

In addition to the most significant projects list- 
ed previously, NOAA has conducted research in 
other areas during the past 10 years which, al- 
though highly cited, has not evidenced a coherent 
history of citations. These papers, published since 

COMMERCE 41 


1968, and having total citations of 30 or more for 
the period 1968-1975 are listed helow. NOAA au- 
thors are italicized. 

1 Utiaul. W. F. ;ind Cohen. R.. Modifying the ionosphere 
with intense radio waves. Science. 2.M-2.';.s. 1971. (Numher of 
citations: 46.) 

2. Kane. S. R. and Donnelly. R. F.. Impulsive hard x-ray and 
ultraviolet emission during solar flares. Astrophysics J. 164, 
IM-I6.V 1971. Oi<.) 

■f. Simpson. J iind Wiggert. V .. Models of precipitating cumu- 
lus towers. Monthly Weather Rev,. 471-489, 1969. (?■».) 

4. Hansen. R, T.. Garcia. C. Hansen. ,S., and l.oomis. H. G.. 
Brightness \ariations of the white light corona durmg the years 
1964-67. Solar Physics, 1969. (3.V) 

5. Bailey. D. K.. Some quantitative aspects of electron precip- 
itation in and near the auroral ^one. Rev. Geophys. 6. No. .1. 
289-346, 1968. (.«.) 

6. McManus. D. A., Burns. R. H et al.. Regional aspects of 
deep sea drilling in the Northeast Pacific. Initial Report of 
Deep Sea Drilling Project ^ 1970 (32.1 

7 Williams. D. J.. Fritz. J. A., and Konradi. A.. Observations 
of proton spectra and fluxes at plasmapause, J. Geophys, Res. 
78, No. 22. 4751-47.S<;, 1973. (31.) 

8. Kessler. E.. On the distribution and continuity of water 
substance in atmospheric circulations. Meteorological Mono- 
graph 10, 1-84, 1969. (31.) 

9. Cohen. R. and Whitehead. J D.. Radio-reflectivily detec- 
tion of artificial modification of the ionospheric F layer. J 
Geophys. Res. 7.S. No. 31. 64.^-644.';. 1970. (.^0.) 


Current and Future Research 
Emphasis 

The most significant NOAA projects involving 
basic research that are currently in progress are 
discussed below. 

Climate. The climate of the Earth is simulated 
through the use of a new global general circula- 
tion mathematical model to determine the model's 
capability for simulating the distribution of cloud 
cover and radiative flux in light of recent observa- 
tions from meteorological satellites. The model 
will also be employed for simulations based on 
boundary conditions obtained from paleoclimatic 
reconstructions of 18,000 years ago.. Mathemati- 
cal atmospheric circulation models will be applied 
to the study of the natural variability of climate 
and to the study of the stability of climate under 
external stimuli, including the photochemical in- 
teractions of ozone with the dynamical circulation 
and the variation of carbon dioxide involving the 
buffering of carbon dioxide by the biosphere and 
the oceans. 

Chemistry, physics, and dynamics of the strato- 
sphere. A comprehensive study of the chemistry. 


physics, and dynamics of the stratosphere in- 
volves: (I) Global measurements of the concentra- 
tions of stratospheric constituents to obtain their 
temporal and spatial distributions: (2) laboratory 
measurements of chemical and photochemical 
reaction rates of stratospheric constituents: (3) 
numerical models of the stratosphere including 
one- and two-dimensional models emphasizing 
dynamics; and (4) remote measurements and data 
analysis of small-scale stratospheric dynamics in- 
cluding turbulence and diffusion. 

Solar-terrestrial physics. Theoretical and experi- 
mental research studies are conducted to under- 
stand the fundamental physical processes respon- 
sible for and causing: (!) The observed energy 
release in the form of electromagnetic and particle 
radiation at the solar surface during solar distur- 
bances; (2) the propagation of this energy through 
the interplanetary medium to the near-earth envi- 
ronment: (3) the transfer of this energy from the 
near-earth interplanetary medium into the Earth's 
magnetic field, the magnetosphere; and (4) the 
behavior and subsequent effects of this energy 
within the magnetosphere. the ionosphere, and 
upper atmosphere regions. 

Severe storms research. Studies are underway 
on the circulation of severe storms and tornadoes, 
including the origin and fate of storm energy and 
the numerical modeling of dynamical, thermody- 
namical. microphysical. and electrical processes 
within severe .storms. 

Structure and motion of the oceans, continental 
shelf processes. Investigations of the structure, 
velocity, extent, and variation of nearshore and 
ocean currents; the time and space variations of 
currents; and the physical properties and chemical 
characteristics of nearshore waters are continuing. 
The continental shelf and open ocean tides are 
being studied through the use of deep sea tide 
gage data and comprehensive satellite tidal data. 
Studies into the behavior and dispersion rate of 
geographic change and sediment onto the ocean 
floor of man-induced matter, and the origins and 
distribution of major physiographic features on 
the continental shelf are continuing. 

Geodetic studies. The relationships between ver- 
tical changes of the land mass in tectonically ac- 
tive areas and observed tidal changes, and be- 
tween elevation and gravity changes in tectonically 
active areas rf the United States are being stud- 
ied. Use of satellite radar altimeter data is being 
used to determine nature of geoidal fluctuations 
over marine features such as the shelf-slope 
break, seamounts, island chains, etc. Comprehen- 
sive research is underway to determine the rate of 
uplift in tectonically active areas such as the 
"Palmdale Bubble" of California and the Aleutian 
Island arc system. A formulation of geodetic 


42 


COMMERCE 


theory in terms of three-dimensional differential 
geodesy is being developed, as well as studies on 
the downward continuation of the geopotential 
and on a representation of the geopotential by 
density layering. 

Global atmospheric research program/the global 
weather experiment (FGGE). This experiment has 
four basic objectives: (1) To obtain a better un- 
derstanding of atmospheric motions for the devel- 
opment of realistic models for extended range 
forecasting, general circulation, and climate; (2) 
to assess the ultimate limit of predictability of 
weather systems of various sizes and time scales; 
(3) to develop new methods for assimilation of 
meteorological data in numerical weather forecast 
models, and in particular, for using more effec- 
tively satellite data in the models; and (4) to de- 
sign an optimum composite global observing sys- 
tem for routine numerical weather prediction on a 
global basis. 

Air-sea interaction. The energy and moisture 
exchange between the ocean and atmosphere is 
basic to worldwide weather and climate and to the 
major ocean currents. Effort is directed toward 
the development of mathematical models of the 
exchange processes, major field investigations to 
provide data on the exchange processes, and 
modeling of storm surge flooding of coastal areas. 

Tidal research. At the present time, NOAA is 
conducting a research project to evaluate the re- 
sponse method in comparison to other methods of 
tidal analysis. A second project has been the 
collection of offshore tidal data with deep-sea tide 
gages for application to continental shelf tidal 
modeling. A major application of future offshore 
tidal measurements by the Oceanographic Divi- 
sion will be the determination of offshore tides bv 
a combination of satellite altimeter tidal data and 
/ns/'fu tidal measurements. 

NOAA research priorities for the next 3 to 10 
years include the following: 

Oceans. These include: Understanding the role 
of the oceans in climate variation; continued de- 
velopment of numerical models of atmospheric 
and ocean systems over a wide range of spatial 
and temporal scales; and understanding the trans- 
port and chronic effects of pollutants on the ocean 
ecosystem. 

Mesoscale weather. Short and medium range 
forecasting techniques are sought for severe 
weather and specialized users (e.g., agricultural 
weather); on the longer term, emphasis is on long- 
range forecasting. Improving the observation and 
modeling of mesoscale weather phenomena; ob- 
taining a comprehensive description of severe 
storms, particularly tornadic storms; basic cloud 
and precipitation microphysics; and modeling the 


planetary boundary layer over irregular terrain are 
other areas of interest. 

Geochemical cycles. This planned research em- 
phasizes: (I) Understanding the geochemical cy- 
cles of carbon dioxide and nitrogen in the atmo- 
sphere, oceans, and biosphere; and (2) improving 
understanding of the physics and chemistry of 
stratosphere and upper troposphere (e.g., ozone). 

Continental shelf, coastal estuarine processes. 
Research seeks to develop a comprehensive inter- 
disciplinary program that will aim at modeling the 
dynamics of shelf and deep water circulation 
phenomena as well as ocean wave climate in the 
U.S. oceanic regions. Other areas include deter- 
mination of the behavior and circulation patterns 
of nearshore and estuarine water masses; and 
analysis of the location and description of cata- 
strophic phenomena active on the continental shelf 
such as slumps, slides, mass sediment transport, 
etc., through microbathymetric analysis and close 
grid surveys. 

Fine structure of the geoid. Future research 
seeks to: Determine the nature and origin of fine 
structure features in the geoid (wave lengths of 
less than 100 kilometers); develop a unified ap- 
proach to geodesy in the United States (unifica- 
tion of horizontal and vertical base data); deter- 
mine the relationship between geodetic and gravi- 
metric fluctuations over the continental shelf and 
continental areas of the United States; determine 
the rate of elevation change in tectonically active 
areas of the United States; and use and develop 
very long base interferometry (VLBI) techniques 
to determine polar motion rates over the United 
States. 

The Global Weather Experiment (GARP/FGGE). 
The research activities under the global atmo- 
spheric research program (GARP) will continue. 
This includes plans and preparations for FGGE 
(the Global Weather Experiment), the operational 
phase of which is scheduled for 1978 and 1979. 
Research on the GARP Atlantic Tropical Experi- 
ment (GATE), the field phase of which was carried 
out in 1974, will also continue. 

Climate. The effect of aerosols on climate will 
be studied, as will the human impact on climate. 
For the longer term (10 years), the research priori- 
ties in the climate area include climate diagnostic 
research. 

Weather modification. Research initiated in the 
late 1960"s to develop a sound scientific basis for 
weather modification will continue. This will in- 
clude field experimentation on hurricanes and 
convective clouds. 

Sea-air interaction. Surface meteorological and 
oceanic data to determine the effect of atmospher- 
ic forcing on the local mass and motion fields of 
the upper ocean will be analyzed. Initial analysis 


COMMERCE 


43 


will concentrate on the unique set of GATE sur- 
face and oceanic data. 

Promising or vital areas of research, not now 
supported at an adequate level but involving basic 
research that warrants increased emphasis and 
support, are discussed below. 

Carbon dioxide in the oceans and biosphere. 
This involves the measurement and analysis of 
carbon dioxide concentrations to understand the 
buffering of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the 
oceans and the biosphere. 

Mesoscale atmospheric processes. Investigation 
of atmospheric motions on the mesoscale through 
comprehensive measurements from a mesoscale 
network and associated analysis and research is 
an important research area. 

Role of oceans in climatic and short-term varia- 
tion. A sea-air interaction investigation is needed 
to determine the role of the oceans in climatic 
variation, in which emphasis would be on under- 
standing and predicting year-to-year fluctuations 
in climate rather than long-term trends. Initial in- 
terest is in the fluctuations in the Equatorial Pacif- 
ic Ocean because of their association with U.S. 
climate. Basic research is also needed to develop 
methods for parameterizing the effect of the sub- 
synoptic variations on the air-sea transfers of 
heat, water vapor, and momentum. 

Ocean dynamics and coastal processes. A com- 
prehensive ocean wave and ocean modeling pro- 
gram for the U.S. ocean waters should be devel- 
oped. Involvement with the large-scale water tec- 
tonic project— MODE and POLYMODE and 


NORPAX — should be expanded. A comprehen- 
sive continental coast tidal program to look at the 
nature and the rate of change in elevation and 
position of the U.S. Continental Shelf region 
should be developed. The study of polar motion 
through the use of very long base interferometry 
techniques in conjunction with NASA appears 
promising. Bathymetric forms, their origins, and 
their association with catastrophic submarine 
events should be studied. 

Climate diagnostics. Empirical analysis of cli- 
mate data and preparation of specialized climate 
research data sets and sun-weather/climate re- 
search are two important research areas concern- 
ing climate diagnostics. 

Stochastic processes in hydrologic forecasts. For 
the hydrology program basic research is needed to 
extend the state of the art in the theory of stochas- 
tic processes to represent more clearly space-time 
variations in factors affecting the uncertainty of 
hydrologic forecasts. This would involve uncer- 
tainty in the atmospheric general circulation mo- 
dels and in the input data to these models. It 
would involve the development of techniques suit- 
able for describing the space-time differences 
between atmospheric forecasts and actual occur- 
rences. Stochastic theory is needed to be able to 
combine in space and time uncertain information 
from remote sensing systems such as satellites, 
aircraft, and ground-based radar with other infor- 
mation now used as inputs to river forecast sys- 
tems. Finally, basic research is needed in estima- 
tion theory and state space modeling for nonlin- 
ear, time-varying systems. 


NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 


NBS Mission 

The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) was 
established by Congress to provide the Nation — 
its citizens, private enterprises, and Govern- 
ment — with a national basis for physical measure- 
ment. In today's highly technological society, the 
Bureau continues to serve as the central reference 
laboratory for measurements and standards for 
the Nation. In addition, it has become a science 
and technology (S&T) resource for Government 
which can operate in a third-party manner and a 
technical arm of the Department of Commerce. In 
this latter capacity, it is broadly supportive of 
productivity and efficiency in industry and Gov- 
ernment, technological innovation and competi- 
tiveness of business, and equity in consumer af- 
fairs. 


All of these functions are dependent on the 
Bureau's being first and foremost a research insti- 
tution, because the quality of NBS services stems 
from the breadth, vigor, and excellence of the 
scientific research base. The Bureau's research is 
carried out in laboratories located in Gaithers- 
burg, Maryland, just outside Washington, D.C., 
and in Boulder, Colorado. The total full-time 
permanent stafl' is about 3,600, with about 1,500 
professionals, most of whom are physical scien- 
tists. 

NBS was founded in 1901 in response to the 
need for measurement and standards due to the 
burgeoning commerce and industrialization of the 
United States in the last part of the 19th century. 
As science and technology proliferated and be- 
came more sophisticated during the 20th century, 
the breadth and scope of the technical and scien- 
tific activities at NBS grew as well. Although the 


44 


COMMERCE 


basic legislative organic act of 1901 has been up- 
dated and amended from time to time, the original 
functions have not been altered; however, there 
has been a growing tendency in recent years for 
Congress and the executive branch to assign spe- 
cific responsibilities to NBS in areas of urgent na- 
tional concern. For example, in response to re- 
cent congressional acts, the Bureau has estab- 
lished a Fire Research Center, developed technol- 
ogy to determine the safety of consumer prod- 
ucts, evaluated new nonnuclear inventions for 
energy conservation or production, and developed 
standards for reclamation of used oils. In re- 
sponse to executive directives, programs have 
been established to explore the impact of Govern- 
ment policy on technological innovation in the 
civilian sector and to develop and disseminate 
technical information of use to consumers. 

In performing its mission, the Bureau has de- 
veloped a staff with high scientific and technical 
credentials and has become a national resource 
with far-reaching impact. It has catalyzed the ap- 
plication of technology and scientific methods to 
societal problems, has been a technical arm to 
other Government agencies, and has been a 
spawning ground for new scientific or technologi- 
cal services within the Government. 

The contributions the Bureau must make to ful- 
fill its mission are credible only to the extent that 
they are based on the best scientific and technical 
judgment available. Thus, management and con- 
gressional oversight have recognized that the fun- 
damental triad of standards, measurements, and 
data that are needed by U.S. scientists and engi- 
neers can only be addressed in the context of an 
institution steeped in the scientific disciplines, 
with a staff actively participating in forefront re- 
search in those disciplines. In addition, basic re- 
search enables it to respond to future demands for 
services in real time. 

The "people dimension"" in this matter is cru- 
cial. NBS staff members of the intellectual stature 
capable of carrying on basic research are essential 
for maintaining the vigor of the institution. NBS, 
like any vital scientific laboratory, must be per- 
meated by an intellectual spirit of inquiry that 
only basic researchers of high caliber at the cut- 
ting edge of science can provide. 


Definition of Basic Research 

NBS therefore not only feels a commitment to 
provide services to those who do basic research 
but must itself be involved in this research in or- 
der to perform its mission. In this context, the 
National Science Foundation (NSF) definition of 


basic research as an activity unrelated to the goals 
of the organization is too severe for our use. For 
us, then, basic research is that generally goal-ori- 
ented forefront disciplinary research, which has 
long-term significance and which has intrinsic sci- 
entific value beyond the limits of the specific mis- 
sion and goals of the organization. The general 
areas of such research will be viewed by manage- 
ment as supportive of the mission and by the indi- 
vidual researcher and his peers in its scientific 
context. 

Much of the justification given above is equiva- 
lent to that for basic research in any high technol- 
ogy or scientific institution with long life expect- 
ancy. However, the unique NBS mission gives its 
research a special flavor, because the Bureau has 
the institutional responsibility for making availa- 
ble to the public the best values of the basic phys- 
ical constants of nature. Although pursuit of accu- 
racy and precision in physical measurements may 
not always be forefront conceptual science, such 
pursuits are often closely associated with fore- 
front science for two reasons: (I) Improved accu- 
racy and precision in experimental science are 
part and parcel of the process of improving the 
tools of science, and they improve the determina- 
tion of the physical constants underlying that 
conceptual framework; and (2) absolute precision 
measurements often have direct impact on con- 
ceptual science. The history of science provides 
numerous examples: Argon was discovered by 
measuring the atomic mass of deoxygenated air 
accurately. The relationship of the velocity of 
light to static current and electrical measurements 
as predicted by Maxwell was confirmed by mea- 
surement; and vacuum polarization was confirmed 
through precise measurement of the fine structure 
constant in hydrogen. 


Role of Basic Research 

Because of the Bureau's deep involvement in 
science over the years, it has become a cross- 
roads for science. This tradition is typified by the 
role NBS played till the I950"s as host for annual 
meetings of the American Physical Society in 
Washington. During this period, before the society 
outgrew NBS" physical plant, the technical ses- 
sions of the society were held on the premises of 
the old Bureau site on Van Ness Street. NBS still 
plays a crossroads role for science and technology 
through its national symposia, weekly colloquia, 
and workshops, thereby hosting some 14,000 sci- 
entists and engineers each year. 

Basic research at NBS has come under a varie- 


COMMERCE 


45 


ty of pressures similar to those at most research 
establishments during the late 1960"s and 1970"s. 
It is easier to discuss the cause of these pressures 
than to quantify them or their effects. There has 
been a constantly increasing number of congres- 
sional acts and executive branch directives man- 
dating that NBS provide short-term services. The 
demands of the other agencies for short-term 
technical assistance in performing their missions 
has grown markedly. The demand for paperwork 
in justification has grown. Because of the in- 
creased sophistication of technology and the se- 
verity of some of the aftereffects of technology, 
NBS services have become more complex techni- 
cally and increasingly require interdisciplinary 
program management. All of these increased 
demands on the Bureau have occurred during a 
time when the personnel ceiling and constant dol- 
lars were essentially static. Deterioration of the 
environment for science as seen by the scientist 
was inevitable. Scientists have been redirected 
from basic research to short-term projects and/or 
program management tending to drive out long- 
term concerns. Although statistics do not tell the 
whole story, they are informative. 

In 1975, the congressionally mandated Visiting 
Committee for NBS sponsored a major study of 
the "state of health of research at NBS," chaired 
by Professor R. Dicke of Princeton University, 
who is a member of the NBS Statutory Visiting 
Committee, and A. McCoubrey, Director the 
NBS Institute for Basic Standards. As part of this 
study, middle managers (Division Chiefs) were 
asked to estimate the amounts of long-term disci- 
plinary research in their organizations in 1965 and 
1975. (Long-term disciplinary research is synony- 
mous with basic research as defined in this arti- 
cle.) In the predominantly science areas — Insti- 
tutes for Basic Standards (IBS), and Materials 
(IMR) — this research decreased from about 35 per- 
cent of the total work in 1965 to about 17 percent 
in 1975, averaged over all the Divisions. In the 
applied areas — Institutes for Applied Technology 
(lAT), and Computer Sciences and Technology 
(ICST) — the corresponding reductions were 5 per- 
cent to 2 percent. The middle managers thought 
that the optimum levels for such research at NBS 
were about 25 percent and 30 percent in the sci- 
ence areas and 10 percent in the applied areas. 
These estimates by the middle managers are 
about as accurate an assessment of trends and the 
desired level of aggregated basic science at NBS 
as can be obtained. 

At NBS and elsewhere in the Nation the cli- 
mate surrounding the conduct of basic research 
has inevitably suffered in recent years from the 
external pressures on research. While the closer 
coupling of science to technology has been bene- 

46 COMMERCE 


ficial in many cases, the climate for long-term re- 
search has suflFered. If this climate is to be im- 
proved, a more explicit recognition is needed 
throughout the Federal S&T governmental struc- 
ture of the value of basic research to the institu- 
tional health and vigor of a mission-oriented labo- 
ratory. This climate could also be improved by a 
more explicit recognition of the fact that the vital 
core of a basic research program is its scientific 
merit and creativity. A better climate would prob- 
ably exist if the evaluations of programs in the 
budgetary process considered the intrinsic scien- 
tific and technical merit of the research involved, 
and relevance was measured against the long-term 
mission of the laboratory as well as the short-term 
effectiveness. 

A scientific group of high vitality and creativity 
is characterized by a free-flowing atmosphere of 
ideas and people. A greater flow of people into and 
out of NBS would improve the research climate. 
In addition to improving the quality of in-house 
research, this flow provides the staff with a win- 
dow on developments in basic science. That is, 
this flow helps the NBS staff keep aware of new 
developments in science elsewhere which have the 
possibility of having future impact on the NBS 
mission. Both kinds of people movement are desir- 
able — sabbatical-like leaves for the permanent 
staff, and expanded opportunities for selected sci- 
entists to visit NBS for extended periods. Indeed, 
the general level of people-exchange among the 
research organizations of the Nation is probably 
not at an optimum level for the most creative ex- 
change of ideas. The NBS postdoctoral program 
addresses this issue and is highly valued. The mat- 
ter of travel, which is a perennial issue in the Fed- 
eral Government, also contributes to this flow of 
ideas by staff attendance at conferences, etc., and 
is crucial for the research staff. 

Finally, there is the matter of equipment. NBS 
has been engaged since 1974 in a program of capi- 
tal equipment modernization. While this program 
is in effect, a reasonable rate of modernization 
can be accomplished, and the most serious defi- 
ciencies will be ameliorated. 

A more fundamental question regarding equip- 
ment which transcends NBS is the proper use of a 
wide-spectrum Federal research installation like 
NBS as a site for placing major facilities that are 
available to other scientists on a regional or even 
a national basis. NBS presently operates a num- 
ber of facilities in this way (e.g., an excellent nu- 
clear reactor, an electron accelerator (LINAC), a 
synchrotron light source, mechanical testing 
machine, etc.). However, this general principle 
has a deeper basis. In the sciences generally there 
is a pervasive increase in the cost of the tools for 
doing research, which escalates faster than the 


support level itself. This trend means that more 
and more sharing of facilities will be necessary on 
a nationwide basis, and NBS is a natural place to 
share facilities, provided adequate support is 
available. Specific examples which might be can- 
didates for such an approach are analytical chem- 
istry, materials characterization, spectroscopy, 
buildings research, fire and combustion research, 
as well as others. 

High capacity computer facilities are an espe- 
cially interesting candidate for sharing between 
laboratories. With the strong trend running toward 
decentralized computer usage with the small dedi- 
cated computer, the possibility should be explored 
of regional cooperative systems for those investi- 
gations requiring a state of the art, high capacity 
computing facility. The Washington, D.C., area 
may now be ripe for such a development. 

NBS has already recognized and attempted to 
respond to some of the trends and issues dis- 
cussed above. For example, the "state of the 
health of research at NBS" carried out by Dicke 
and McCoubrey suggested increasing the people 
flow through the laboratory. In response NBS will 
double the postdoctoral program from about 40 
postdoctorates to about 80 over a period of 6 to 8 
years. The report also recommended setting up a 
committee composed of working-level scientists 
and engineers to advise the Director on matters of 
research opportunities and research climate. That 
committee has been in operation for about a year 
and has made a number of recommendations. 
Other internal ways and means for improving the 
climate and general health and vigor of basic re- 
search are being discussed and explored. 

The intent of this paper is to show how NBS, 
by performing its primary mission of providing 
standards, measurement methods, and scientific 
and technical data, has become a broad-gauge sci- 
entific laboratory which has also served the Na- 
tion well in the front ranks of basic science. 

Changes in the style and role of basic science 
throughout the United States during the past dec- 
ade and the added requirements on NBS for 
short-term outputs have changed the environment 
for long-term research at NBS and placed pres- 
sures on the conduct of basic research. NBS has 
recognized its special need to preserve and culti- 
vate capabilities in basic research and strives to 
keep the vitality of its basic research high. 

The fundamental issue regarding basic research 
in the Government laboratories is the need to 
maintain a Federal policy that encourages basic 
research of high quality. A laboratory such as 
NBS must be encouraged to carry on a significant 
level of basic research in support of its mission, 
and to foster a cadre of staff who operate with 
distinction at the forefront of science in order to 


maintain the technical vigor and viability of the 
laboratory over the long term. A corollary to this 
policy is that the management process that gov- 
erns this enterprise should recognize two criteria 
for the support of such research: (1) The research 
should be generically relevant to the long-term 
mission of the laboratory, and (2) the research 
should be judged on the basis of its intrinsic sci- 
entific value. The selection of basic research areas 
on the basis of short-range program goals is not 
feasible. Finally, the current level of effort of basic 
research at NBS should be increased, and in 
keeping with the increasing importance of S&T in 
the country, methods should be found for increas- 
ing the flow of people and ideas through the labo- 
ratory. 

Beyond these observations, another important 
need is to establish procedures and methods with- 
in the scientific community by which greater shar- 
ing of major scientific equipment and facilities can 
occur. Facilities contained in major laboratories 
such as NBS should be made more available to 
outside users. NBS has both wares to offer (a 
nuclear reactor, unique analytical capabilities, 
mechanical testing facilities, etc.) and needs 
(e.g., access to high speed/high capacity comput- 
ers, high energy synchrotron light sources, etc.). 
In order to achieve this goal, both funding proce- 
dures and institutional arrangements will have to 
be established. 


Current and Future Research 
Emphasis 

The purpose of this section is to review briefly 
the major lines of research at NBS and indicate 
some areas of special interest for the future. Be- 
cause NBS research extends into nearly all the 
major disciplines of physical science, including 
mathematics and selected areas of engineering, 
this review must be limited to examples and high- 
lights. 

Before entering into the details of our discus- 
sion, however, four examples of work at NBS 
which figured in discoveries leading eventually to 
Nobel Prizes will be mentioned to illustrate the 
caliber and impact of basic research at NBS. 
These are the concentration of heavy hydrogen by 
Brickwedde in 1931; the scattering of neutrons in 
para and ortho hydrogen by Brickwedde, Hoge, 
and others, which showed that neutron-proton 
forces were spin dependent; assistance in the de- 
sign and construction of the bubble chamber by 
Birmingham, Chelton, and Mann; and the experi- 
mental verification of the violation of parity con- 
servation in weak nuclear forces by Ambler, 


COMMERCE 


47 


Haywood, Hoppes, Hudson, and Wu. In addition, 
work by Maxwell at NBS demonstrated the iso- 
tope effect in superconductivity simultaneously 
with workers at Rutgers, an experiment which 
laid the ultimate basis for the Bardeen, Cooper, 
Schrieffer(BCS) theory. 

Physical Measurements 

Measurement science as practiced at NBS is 
synonymous with the development and use of the 
tools and instruments of experimental science and 
technology for more precise and powerful meas- 
urements of the physical world. Although every 
experimentalist is therefore also a practitioner of 
measurement science, NBS has an institutional 
responsibility to foster it. Thus, as mentioned ear- 
lier, measurement science colors the entire re- 
search effort at NBS and receives continuing high 
priority. One indication of the marked progress in 
measurement science can be seen by comparing 
the best values of the physical constants listed of 
1959 with those of 1975. In general, the precision 
has increased by factors of thousands. 

As a specific example, the frequency spectrum 
standards system has been expanded in overlap- 
ping steps from 4 x IQiOHz to about lO-OHz (mi- 
crowave frequencies to 7-rays). Not only has the 
level of precision been improved markedly, but 
the long-standing dichotomy between the optical 
and x-ray regimes has been removed. 

Of all the other examples of areas where meas- 
urement science is pursued at NBS, we mention 
analytical chemistry. This area is also of interest 
because of the important national problems which 
are addressed. For example, pollution abatement, 
industrial quality control, and clinical chemistry 
are all analytical chemistry intensive. A major 
challenge for the future is in the development of 
sensitive, accurate techniques for the determina- 
tion of organic compounds in diverse media. Here 
the ability to separate and characterize becomes 
paramount since the samples may have hundreds 
or even thousands of potentially interfering con- 
stituents. 

In the future as in the past, measurement sci- 
ence will be the principal driving force for basic 
research at NBS and to a large extent will deter- 
mine the style of NBS research. The needs in mea- 
surement science will be for more precise values 
of the basic physical constants, for more sophisti- 
cated chemical analysis, for more accurate charac- 
terization of materials, and for more accurate and 
economic techniques for making all sorts of physi- 
cal measurements of temperature, sound, electro- 
magnetic fields, etc. In pursuit of this challenge, 
NBS expects to continue to operate at the fore- 
front of the physical science disciplines and inte- 


grate research in the disciplines to provide the 
measurement services needed in areas of major 
national concern. Examples are nuclear safe- 
guards, energy, government regulation requiring a 
technical basis, health, safety, and technology 
underlying better consumer information. 

Atoms and Molecules 

This category of research encompasses new and 
promising research opportunities covering much of 
physics and chemistry. In it, NBS conducts experi- 
ments and develops theory for describing the basic 
properties, such as configurations, interactions, 
and transitions of atomic, molecular, and ionic 
species. The data and theories developed form the 
basis for modeling and understanding the equilibri- 
um and nonequilibrium states of such important 
systems as fusion plasmas, lasers, and the earth's 
ozone layer. They also form the basis for predic- 
tion and control of chemical reaction rates in all 
their multifarious applications. 

NBS is presently analyzing the very hot gases of 
interest to the national thermonuclear program. 
An extensive series of measurements is being 
made of radiation spectra, energy levels, transition 
probabilities, and electron impact excitation. Of 
particular scientific interest is the first definitive 
beam measurement of the cross section for elec- 
tron impact of a multiply-charged ion (C+^). 

By pioneering in the use of synchrotron radia- 
tion and the development of monoenergetic elec- 
tron sources, NBS played a leading role over the 
past decade in discovering and understanding 
atomic and molecular resonances due to doubly 
excited states. A beam of electrons derived from 
laser-induced photo-ionization of metastable bar- 
ium was used to resolve doubly excited states to 
about 1.5 meV, or more than 10 times better than 
previous techniques. This new precision will allow 
much more thorough tests of the theory, much of 
which was developed at NBS. 

A new spectroscopy has been developed at NBS 
and is becoming widely adopted elsewhere, where- 
in molecular continuum radiation is quantitatively 
measured and analyzed to determine molecular 
potentials of colliding gases, when one of the colli- 
sion partners is excited. The increasing application 
of lasers to atomic and molecular spectroscopy has 
brought with it the additional complexities of non- 
linear or multiphoton processes. The physics of 
such processes is being explored theoretically and 
through experimental studies of multiphoton ioni- 
zation in very diffuse alkali vapor as well as in 
dense alkali plasmas. 

Further laser research at NBS has led to their 
use for selectively exciting molecular transitions 
which allow very sensitive analytical detection of 


48 


COMMERCE 


molecular species and permit the study of state-to- 
state selective chemistry. Thus, detailed dynamics 
of state-to-state bimolecular collision processes 
can he determined. These experimental studies are 
complemented by theoretical work on molecular 
excited states. Experimental investigations have 
indicated the inadequacy of the conventional rate 
theory model (based on the activated complex) for 
predicting vibrational enhancement of chemical 
rate processes in certain systems. This activated 
complex model has been a central fixture in chemi- 
cal kinetics theory for many years, so these find- 
ings are of considerable fundamental significance. 
Another new area of laser chemistry is that of las- 
er-induced photodissociation, the basis for isotopic 
selective photofragmentation, which is of intense 
interest to the Energy Research and Development 
Administration (ERDA) as a promising new tech- 
nique for nuclear fuel enrichment. NBS has played 
a major role in the basic research behind ERDA's 
efforts. 

As to the future, the use of new tools, and espe- 
cially of lasers, for studying excited atomic and 
molecular states, and state-to-state transitions 
between them is recognized nationally as a new 
and scientifically exciting approach to developing 
new concepts underlying chemical reactions, 
broadly defined, and to finding powerful new in- 
sights into all phenomena where atomic and mole- 
cular processes are involved. The full exploitation 
of the potential of atomic and molecular science 
will require extensive collaboration by chemists 
and physicists, and theory as well as experiment. 
NBS is in an excellent position to play a major role 
in the future unfolding of this significant field. 

Nuclear Science 

NBS has maintained research programs in nucle- 
ar science from near its beginning, derived partly 
from early involvement in radiation standards and 
later in nuclear measurements. An example of re- 
cent work at NBS is the precision measurement of 
electron scattering at the NBS linear accelerator 
(LINAC), in which NBS workers have collaborat- 
ed with groups from numerous universities in this 
country and abroad and from other agencies of 
Government. Accurate hexadecapole measure- 
ments of deformed heavy nuclei have provided 
unique information on the radial charge distribu- 
tion. 

A second example is the investigation of the 
normal modes of the nucleus and the giant reso- 
nance of the nuclear electric dipole. As early as 
1965 theoreticians conjectured that the giant reso- 
nance should couple into the quadrupole vibrations 
of the nuclear surface. At NBS, calculations were 
made of the expected cross sections, and the pre- 
dicted effects were subsequently measured with 


plane polarized monochromatic 7-rays. Within the 
limited precision available, photons were observed 
to be scattered along the incident polarization vec- 
tor, due to the coupling to the spherical vibrations, 
while no scattering in this direction was measured 
from the rigid spherical nucleus of -O'^Bi, as ex- 
pected, in a beautiful confirmation of the theory. 
Other theoretical work has also dealt with many 
aspects of high energy electromagnetic reactions 
ranging from radiation transport to few nucleon 
dynamics and elementary particle interactions. 

In the near future NBS research on nuclear 
structure will make two major thrusts. In the first, 
improved experimental resolution of electron scat- 
tering will be combined with improved counting 
rates to allow the study of the more closely spaced 
and weaker nuclear excited states. The second 
thrust will use a monoenergetic photon beam ob- 
tained from inflight annihilation of LINAC posi- 
trons to study nuclei by means of elastic and ine- 
lastic photon scattering. 

In the long term, further advances in under- 
standing nuclear structure by means of electromag- 
netic probes will demand detection of nuclear de- 
cay products in coincidence experiments. These 
experiments will require accelerators with a much 
higher duty cycle than the present NBS LINAC. 

Thermal Studies of Matter 

NBS has for many years been in the forefront 
of the study of the thermal properties of matter. 
An international conference on critical phenome- 
na, held at NBS in 1965, marked the beginning of a 
mature understanding of that field. At this confer- 
ence, the apparent universality of critical point 
behavior was first clearly demonstrated. That is, 
the behavior of a material near its critical point 
was found to be independent of details such as 
the atomic force laws, at least in a large variety of 
cases. Research at NBS has concentrated on clar- 
ifying and extending the universality concept by 
making high precision measurements on fluids and 
fluid mixtures near their critical points. 

Theoretical studies of liquid structure and spa- 
tially disordered matter have led to a first-princi- 
ples theory of first-order phase transitions (e.g., 
melting-freezing), and has made possible for the 
first time an investigation of the properties of 
thermodynamically metastable states without in- 
voking arbitrary and unjustified assumptions. 
Computer simulation of shock waves in lattices is 
being used to study the response of solids to 
strong perturbations from thermal equilibrium. 

A principal challenge of much of this work on 
the thermal properties of matter, which will con- 
tinue to be addressed in the future, is dealing with 
systems far from equilibrium, in nearly all analy- 
ses of kinetic phenomena, one now assumes that 

COMMERCE 49 


the system is very close to thermal equilibrium 
and that local thermodynamic variables can be 
defined and measured. However, in many impor- 
tant situations, the system is far from equilibrium 
and the standard techniques and concepts do not 
apply. Theory at present has little to say about 
how to conceptualize this situation and conse- 
quently the meaningful measurements or physical 
parameters that characterize the system are not 
known. Theoreticians and experimentalists will 
address this difficult and fundamental question in 
the future by studying metastable systems, sys- 
tems containing very large gradients of properties, 
and systems undergoing rapid dynamic changes. 

Surfaces 

NBS has made a major investment in surface 
science, with theoretical and experimental work in 
surface physics, surface chemistry, and metallurg- 
ical corrosion. From all indications, this field is on 
the threshold of many illuminating insights into 
important areas of application such as catalysis, 
corrosion, small particles, wear, and electronic 
devices. 

An example of recent progress at NBS is the 
discovery that ions liberated from absorbed mon- 
olayers by electron-stimulated desorption have 
sharply peaked angular distributions which have 
the same symmetry as the single crystal sub- 
strates. The directions of ion desorption are relat- 
ed to the directions of bonds at surfaces, and the 
measurements provide a significant new potential 
for determining surface structure. 

Theoretical work has addressed the electronic 
structure of chemisorbed atoms and in particular 
the energy dependence of field emission and pho- 
toemission of electrons from surfaces with ad- 
sorbed layers. Recent work has predicted direc- 
tional effects in photoemission from which chemi- 
sorption orbitals and bonding geometries can be 
inferred. Specifically, the angular dependence of 
photoemitted electrons from "adatoms" bonded 
to a substrate has been calculated on the basis of 
further detailed calculations of the electron charge 
densities in the adatom. As a whole, the work by 
NBS workers and others on directional effects in 
surface measurement techniques has added a new 
dimension to the ability to observe, understand, 
and control basic surface phenomena on an atom- 
ic level. 

NBS is also known widely for its corrosion re- 
search. For example, NBS corrosion research has 
been responsible for much of the development of 
ellipsometry into a quantitative tool for studying 
surface corrosion buildup. Significant contribu- 
tions were also made to the application of field 
emission microscopy to gas-metal surface interac- 
tions, surface structure, and surface diffusion. 

50 COMMERCE 


Surface science together with its applied fields 
of catalysis and corrosion is rapidly becoming one 
of the most significant scientific endeavors, not 
only because of important applications, but be- 
cause of the promise of marked advance in sci- 
ence and technology as a result of the powerful 
research tools and scientific momentum being 
developed. NBS plans to play a significant role in 
the Nation's surface studies in the future through 
research in the relevant physics, chemistry, corro- 
sion, and catalysis. In particular, NBS is chal- 
lenged by technology's need to characterize the 
geometric and electronic properties of catalytic 
sites and by the need to measure the effects of 
catalytic poisons at the atomic level. 

Experimentalists, in collaboration with the theo- 
reticians, will continue to refine and advance the 
growing array of improved analytical techniques 
and contribute new insights and measures of elec- 
tron-solid and gas-solid interactions and better 
descriptions of the electronic structure of sur- 
faces. 

Materials Science 

Progress in materials science remains dependent 
on interdisciplinary scientific investigation and is a 
crucial nexus of application for many areas of na- 
tional concern such as energy, health, safety, 
etc. NBS does substantial research in polymers, 
metallurgy, ceramics, glass, and semiconductors, 
and operates one of the Nation's most active re- 
search nuclear reactors for the benefit of outside 
users as well as for NBS. 

At NBS, key contributions have been made to 
the characterization of polymers, and especially 
to the description of polymer crystallization by 
the chain folding process. Shortly after the idea of 
chain folding was proposed, a series of papers 
were issued at NBS that explained the important 
experimental findings and that established a theo- 
retical basis for the kinetics of chain folding in 
terms of fluctuation theory. NBS pioneered in 
establishing the properties of III/V semiconductor 
oxides and was one of two groups that first found 
superconductivity in semiconducting materials. 
Mechanical properties and failure mechanisms in 
all types of materials are long-term activities at 
NBS. For example, NBS pioneered in measuring 
the static fatigue of glass and has shown how 
slow crack growth and acoustic emission can be 
used to provide reliability control in brittle materi- 
als. 

The fundamental principle in materials science 
is to correlate the macroscopic properties of ma- 
terials with the electronic, atomic, and microscop- 
ic structure. Future challenges in materials thus 
lie primarily in making this correlation more quan- 
titative and inclusive. However, because this cor- 


relation involves such a breadth of traditional 
branches of science, research in this field lacks 
the sharp focus of fields such as surface science. 
Therefore, our discussion of it will encompass 
several thrusts. 

NBS is a leader in the study of the basic atomic 
structure itself through work on x-ray and neutron 
scattering, phase transformations, crystal growth, 
and electron microscopy. A recent National Acad- 
emy of Sciences study of the scientific opportuni- 
ties in neutron scattering research has highlighted 
the high potential of this field. Possessing one of 
the foremost neutron scattering groups in the 
country, NBS is in an excellent position to exploit 
these opportunities. Recent advances in complex 
and subtle ordering phenomena in multicompo- 
nent materials point to increasing scientific prom- 
ise for this field as well, and NBS expects to con- 
tinue to contribute in a major way. 

An area of high priority and of special rele- 
vance to the Nation's energy programs is research 
on the performance of materials in extreme envi- 
ronments. NBS has a history of contributions and 
expertise in diffusion, crystal growth, electrical 
properties, structure transformations, mechanical 
properties, and corrosive processes, and in char- 
acterizing novel materials, all of which bear on 
the performance of materials in extreme environ- 
ments. 

The science underlying nondestructive evalua- 
tion and failure mechanisms is a timely concern of 
NBS. Responding to the growth in the national 
importance of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) to 
public safety, health care, and commercial prod- 
uctivity, and to promising advances in theory and 
experiment, NBS has established and will contin- 
ue to support an interdisciplinary research pro- 
gram in NDE. 

Special notice should be taken of the interfaces 
between materials science and biology. Increas- 
ingly, the biological research community is using 
synchrotron light souces, neutron sources, nuclear 
magnetic resonance machines, and other tools of 
the material scientists. NBS fosters and partici- 
pates in a national collaboration which is begin- 
ning between the material and biological scientists 
who share measurement problems. This collabora- 
tion will bring considerable benefit to both fields. 

Mathematics 

In the course of developing mathematical tech- 
niques to meet the needs of NBS scientists and 
the wider technical community, the Bureau's 
mathematicians have contributed significantly to 
numerical analysis, statistics, and operations re- 
search. When computers became commonplace. 
NBS numerical analysts turned to the study of 
methods for validating and maintaining accurate 


algorithms. Work in the mathematical methods of 
operations research has focused on optimization 
techniques, problems of network routing and de- 
sign, and models and methods for optimal facility 
location. Interest is increasing in the theoretical 
and conceptual problems that surround the com- 
parative testing of competing "optimization" al- 
gorithms, the evaluation of large-scale mathemati- 
cal models, and the improvement of the model- 
development process. 

Methods of mathematical statistics have been 
developed to foster the efficient use of experi- 
menter's time and materials in the planning and 
analysis of precision measurement experiments. 
The results of combinatorial analysis have provid- 
ed partially balanced incomplete block designs, 
fractional factorial designs, and other experiment 
plans. The growing challenge is to couple experi- 
ment design with sampling theory to provide a 
sound basis for error analysis of physical meas- 
urements arising in pollution abatement and the 
application of other technological standards. 

Engineering 

NBS recognizes the importance of long-term 
disciplinary research in the traditional engineering 
fields and supports relevant advanced research 
just as in the case of physics and chemistry. The 
principal areas of research are: fire phenomena, 
building technology, and electronic technology. In 
all three areas, strong interconnections are being 
developed to the research previously discussed in 
mathematics, materials science, physics, and 
chemistry. 

Fire research. NBS operates the Federal Gov- 
ernment's fire research center and performs re- 
search on the prevention and control of fires, 
conducting both intramural and external contract 
research. 

NBS is applying laser diagnostic techniques to 
fire research. Chemical species in the flame are 
detected and the temperature of the flame is meas- 
ured simultaneously. Other research includes the 
analysis of the basic reaction kinetics in flames 
with and without additions of retardants and of 
the properties of smoke particles and of pyrolysis. 
Mathematical models are developed for fires. 

Fire research is a particular challenge to scien- 
tists, requiring the pooling of interdisciplinary 
expertise from chemistry, physics, materials, and 
mathematics, a process that is in its early stages 
of development at NBS. Heretofore, fire research 
has been considered too complex to attract much 
attention from the top researchers in physics and 
chemistry. Fire research is closely allied to com- 
bustion research, a field now receiving intense 
national attention, and will benefit from and con- 
tribute to that effort. In particular, advances dis- 

COMMERCE 51 


cussed earlier under '•Atoms and Molecules" (es- 
pecially laser chemistry) should make major con- 
tributions to fire research. Mathematical modeling 
of the hydrodynamical nature of fires, including 
chemical reaction phenomena, will receive growing 
attention at NBS. 

Building research. Building science at NBS en- 
compasses an unusually wide spectrum of sci- 
ence, including behavioral psychology, bioacous- 
tics, analytical chemistry, computer science, heat 
transfer and thermodynamics, and solid mechan- 
ics and fluid flow. Significant contributions have 
been made in recent years in the development of 
wind data around a building for structural and air 
leakage analysis, properties of unreinforced ma- 
sonry walls, progressive collapse, ground heat 
transfer for underground systems, mathematical 
modeling of building thermal systems and energy 
performance, multiphase and multicomponent 
fluid flow in the plumbing systems, and the physi- 
cal chemistry of paint and asphalt. 

The central mission for the future of building 
science at NBS is to develop performance criteria 
for building design, either as a whole or in its var- 
ious aspects. Future challenges in building science 
are the development of technical data useful in 
the design and evaluation of a building in terms of 
combined and optimum requirements for habita- 
bility, durability, serviceability, energy conserva- 
tion, life-cycle cost, and structural safety, as well 
as architectural acceptability. 

Electronic technology. NBS addresses the meas- 
urement and reliability questions that underlie 
the manufacture and use of all types of solid-state 
electronic devices, and its research encompasses 
such diverse disciplines as solid-state physics, 
physical chemistry, electrical engineering, analyti- 
cal chemistry, optics, and sensitometry. 

Research in this area at NBS is designed to 
characterize the effects of dopant and unwanted 
impurities in semiconductor materials and has 
resulted in a technique for the detection of sodium 
atoms in an atmosphere at hitherto unattainable 
low levels (KM atoms/cm^). NBS scientists also 
have reinvestigated and corrected old and inaccur- 
ate conversion procedures for obtaining the impur- 
ity concentrations in silicon from measurements of 
its resistivity. This conversion is basic to semicon- 
ductor device design, performance, and material 
specification. In other work to provide methods for 
measuring line widths in photomasks used in the 
microcircuit fabrication process, the basic theory 
of optical microscopy was improved so that one- 
half micrometer line measurements can now be 
made to an accuracy satisfactory for industrial 
use. 

The measurement techniques required now as 
microcircuit device technology breaks into the 


submicrometer-size regime exceed the present 
state of the art in important areas. These include 
basic electrical measurements on finished devices 
(voltage, current, and capacitance), advanced ana- 
lytical techniques for trace impurities at the part- 
per-billion level, and dimensional metrology at the 
submicrometer level. In addition, new methods 
for testing increasingly complex integrated circuits 
such as microprocessors both functionally and 
parametrically need to be developed. This area 
thus becomes one of major application for meas- 
urement science at NBS for the future. 

Below are some areas of high scientific poten- 
tial and interest for future support where the NBS 
mission is directly involved and where NBS pos- 
sesses the necessary technical and scientific tal- 
ent. 

• Measurement science is part and parcel of 
the substance of each of the areas mentioned 
below. One area, organic analysis, deserves 
special attention. Improved instrumental 
techniques including gas chromatography, 
mass spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic reso- 
nance (NMR), and Raman spectroscopy are 
being applied vigorously in the area of identi- 
fying and measuring organic species at con- 
centrations down to the part-per-billion level. 
The formidable scientific challenges are paral- 
leled by urgent needs for this capability in 
environmental water quality and in biomedi- 
cal research. The need for standards and new 
techniques for both applications has stimulat- 
ed a significant research effort. 

• Atomic and molecular science is in ferment, 
with NBS occupying a significant position at 
the forefront. Scientific results of great pow- 
er involving such fundamental concepts as 
mechanisms underlying chemical reaction 
rates are being produced with implications 
for pollution measurements, ozone layer 
dynamics, very high temperature plasmas, 
new lasers, and measurement science of val- 
ue to industrial chemistry. 

• The science of surfaces is gaining scientific 
momentum due to the development of pow- 
erful analytical tools, e.g., recent results that 
give inferences about bond direction of ad- 
sorbed atoms. Surface science has a high 
potential for ultimately developing predictive 
power for catalysis and corrosion applica- 
tions, and will be important for applications 
to the properties of small particles where the 
surface-to-volume ratio is high. NBS has a 
particularly effective research effort in sur- 
face science. 

• A major challenge of materials science is to 
improve our understanding of the relation of 


52 


COMMERCE 


materials atomic and microstructure to ma- 
terials properties. New insights in phase rela- 
tions and kinetics, plus increasingly sophisti- 
cated tools such as neutron scattering for the 
study of structure, promise a new plateau of 
achievement in predicting this relationship. 
Revolutionary possibilities exist for the appli-. 
cation of modern physical ideas to mechani- 
cal failure and ultimately to NDE because of 
the still primitive level of understanding of 
the basic physical bases for deformation and 
fracture and of the empiricism characteristic 
of NDE applications. High temperature and 
extreme environments, especially in their 
applications to energy problems, represent a 
new frontier for materials applications with a 
new configuration of measurement problems. 

• Fire research is a high potential area for the 
application of basic chemistry, physics, and 
mathematics in interdisciplinary teams to 
studies of the basic phenomena underlying 
combustion and fires. 

• Nuclear science looks to ultimate resolution 
of the very closely spaced levels in the excit- 
ed nucleus by a succession of improved ex- 
perimental techniques. In the long term, this 
type of research will require detection of nu- 
clear events by coincidence measurements, 
which will require an accelerator with a long- 
er duty cycle than the present LINAC. 

• Several branches of mathematics bear direct- 
ly on the success of future programs at NBS. 
Among these are analysis, statistics, and 
computer science with work on optimization 
algorithms, large-scale mathematical models, 
evaluation and methodology, and application 
of sampling theory to measurement science 
and standards. 

• The problems of nonequilibrium systems is 
one of the classic areas of science where a 
fully satisfying conceptual basis is still lack- 
ing. Collaborative interactions with atomic 
and molecular science and phase transforma- 
tions in materials give this area special inter- 
est. 

• In serving as the central focus for buildings 
research in the U.S., NBS future research 
will concentrate on all aspects of the techni- 
cal data that underlie the building design and 
use cycle. 

• The next generation of electronic technology 
will break through the size barrier at the mi- 
crometer level which is imposed by fabrica- 
tion technology based on visible light. The 
measurement requirements of the submicro- 
meter regime are severe. Measurement re- 
quirements will become more severe as the 


fabrication technology advances toward x- 
rays, or high energy electrons. 


Organization and Management of 
Research Activities 

From the management viewpoint, there is no 
special category of policies or procedures that 
relate specifically to basic research, as distinct 
from any other form of research. 

NBS uses four principal means of evaluating its 
research programs: 

1. Internal management reviews are conducted 
at each level in the organization. These culminate 
in an extensive series of program presentations 
made by the program managers to the Director 
and the Executive Board. These reviews are 
structured so as to air the performance of each 
program systematically before all levels of NBS 
management to allow fresh insight and criticism 
with respect to the performance and relevance of 
the programs. The endpoint of this annual process 
is the establishment of priorities. 

2. To obtain an external perspective, NBS con- 
tracts with the National Academy of Sciences to 
provide an independent review and evaluation of 
NBS programs. The 29 panels that evaluate the 
NBS are made up to a total of 236 top-ranking 
scientists and engineers drawn by the. Academy 
from industry (50 percent), universities (40 per- 
cent), and Government (10 percent). An Execu- 
tive Committee of panel leaders considers issues 
common to more than one part of the Bureau. 

3. The entire Bureau is surveyed and evaluated 
by the National Bureau of Standards Statutory 
Visiting Committee. This standing committee is 
appointed by the Secretary of Commerce and 
reports to him annually upon the efficiency of the 
Bureau's scientific work and the condition of its 
equipment. 

4. To carry out the comprehensive and exten- 
sive analysis of issues in selected program areas, 
the NBS undertakes special evaluations. These 
evaluations are done by qualified contractor per- 
sonnel, competitively selected, who operate under 
the direct program management of the NBS staff. 

NBS makes use of a variety of mechanisms to 
promote a proper climate for research. In 1955, 
NBS pioneered a governmental postdoctoral re- 
search associateship program modeled after the 
practice established in American universities. This 
program is now administered for many Govern- 
ment laboratories through the auspices of the Na- 
tional Research Council and has become very 
successful. During the early post-war period, 
NBS invented a new kind of collaborative elTort 


COMMERCE 


53 


with universities when it set up jointly with the 
University of Colorado in Boulder a laboratory 
for the study of upper atmosphere science. Joint 
Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (JILA), with 
funding shared with the Defense Advanced Re- 
search Projects Agency (now with NSF). JILA 
still functions as an outstanding example of Gov- 
ernment participation with a university in basic 
research and has become a world leader in atomic 


and molecular science. NBS doors are also open 
to scientists who want to collaborate with its staff 
on a temporary basis. Many of these are local 
faculty members who make use of special facili- 
ties at NBS such as the nuclear reactor, while 
others stay for longer sabbatical periods. NBS has 
an industrial research associate program which 
attracts scientists and engineers to work with 
NBS on problems of mutual interest. 


MARITIME ADMINISTRATION 


The Maritime Administration (MarAd) promotes 
the development, operation, and maintenance of 
an efficient American-flag merchant marine capa- 
ble of meeting the commercial and military ship- 
ping requirements of the United States. To carry 
out this mission, MarAd assists the maritime in- 
dustry by promoting shipper patronage of U.S.- 
flag vessels, developing advanced transportation 
systems and shipboard equipment, evaluating ship 
design, training merchant marine officers, and 
providing financial support to American shipbuild- 
ers and operators to narrow the cost advantages 
enjoyed by their foreign competitors. 

In the conduct of its mission over the past five 
years, MarAd, in cooperation with the maritime 
industry, has carried out a broad research and 
development program directed toward improving 
the productivity and competitive posture of the 
U.S. merchant marine through technologically 
based innovations. The general program is direct- 
ed along two parallel paths which correspond to 
the structure of the maritime industry itself. 
There are major programs in advanced ship oper- 
ations and in advanced ship development. Under 
advanced ship development, elements address the 
technologies of shipbuilding, ship machinery, and 
nuclear merchant ships. Under advanced ship 
operations, development programs are carried out 
in ship and cargo operations generally, ship con- 
trol technology, and navigation and communica- 
tion. These programs are designed to speed the 
development of new processes and methods to 
improve productivity in the operation of Ameri- 
can flag ships and in American shipyards. They 
are each characterized by extensive participation 
and cost-sharing by the ship operators and ship- 
builders, who also share in the planning and im- 
plementation of the programs. The cost of equip- 
ment development is shared by the commercial 
equipment manufacturers. 

Within this total program, a portion of the effort 
is devoted to long-term research of a disciplinary 
nature designed to provide the concepts and capa- 

54 COMMERCE 


bilities upon which future development programs 
can build. Such research corresponds to the basic 
research category for this document as a whole. 

In particular, the basic research addresses the 
classical naval architecture technologies of struc- 
tures, hydrodynamics, and propulsors. In the pro- 
pulsor area, emphasis is on advanced propeller 
design and materials to achieve improved efficien- 
cy. In the structures area, investigations are con- 
ducted to determine the effects of sea loads and 
vibrations on ship structures. Analyses in this 
area are conducted in cooperation with other 
agencies and the National Academy of Sciences. 
Hydrodynamics projects are aimed at improving 
the efficiency of moving vehicles through the sea, 
with emphasis on powering technology, speed, 
and maneuverability. For example, an extensive 
series of model tests has been conducted on new 
hull forms and their maneuvering limitations. In- 
house efforts in exploratory research involve 
human factors studies, ship automation and com- 
munications project support, energy/environmen- 
tal research support, and technology transfer. 
Areas of special interest have been studies of 
wave heights and their effect on ship bending, 
hydrodynamics studies of new ship forms, and 
studies of the effect of propeller shape on the 
transmission of vibration to the ship. The latter 
work has led to the development of a new type of 
propeller, with extended trailing edge of the blade 
tips, which induces a much lower vibration level 
in the ship. This new design is also characterized 
by increased efficiency and reduced maintenance. 

An important tool developed for the in-house 
work on maritime research is the Computer-Aided 
Operations Research Facility (CAORF). At this 
unique simulator, built around a typical wheel- 
house and control center that uses computer- 
generated images of the changing scene projected 
on a wide screen, simulated ships of all types can 
be maneuvered through any harbor configuration 
or environment and traffic situation in real time. 
Many of the tests at CAORF will thus study the 


complex problems associated with passage 
through dangerous and restricted waters, and 
evaluate the relationships between the watch 


officer, the ship dynamics, the wheelhouse and 
equipment, and the sea environment. 


OFFICE OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS 


The research and engineering arm of the Office 
of Telecommunications is known as the Institute 
for Telecommunication Sciences (ITS) and is lo- 
cated in Boulder, Colorado. The role of the Office 
of Telecommunications is to provide specialized 
research and analysis essential for increasing suc- 
cessful applications of telecommunications tech- 
nology. In turn, the goals of the ITS are to: 

• Increase the availability of usable spectrum 
by engineering methods. 

• Increase the likelihood of satisfactory tele- 
communication system performance, as af- 
fected by natural, engineering, and economic 
factors. 

ITS's contributions are made through three broad 
programs: (1) Efficient use of the spectrum. (2) 
engineering and evaluation of systems, and (3) 
electromagnetic wave transmission research and 
services. 

These three prtigrams are highly dependent 
upon one another. For example, transmission 
phenomena play an important role in determining 
whether radio systems will work in the field, as do 
questions of mutual interference between systems 
or subsystems. Variability of transmission loss 
through the atmosphere determines the physical 
separation between systems sharing the same fre- 
quency and thus affects the efficiency of spectrum 
use. Engineering of systems to obtain the required 
performance demands adequate knowledge of 


transmission loss and distortion, as well as the 
effects of interference. 

Basic research in ITS represents a small portion 
of the total etTort and is that long-term discipli- 
nary research that underpins the engineering ef- 
fort. It is found primarily within the wave trans- 
mission area. Most of ITS's work is in applied 
research. 

In electromagnetic wave transmission research, 
the basic research effort is aimed at improving the 
successful deployment of radio systems designed 
to operate near the state of the art, insofar as 
propagation is concerned. Deleterious propagation 
effects form a basic limitation to the performance 
of radio systems. Attenuation, scattering, ducting, 
and refraction affect both wanted and unwanted 
signals. Scattering the multipath may limit the 
available band width. 

Recent work of a long-term character of particu- 
lar interest includes: 

• Studies of the strength and width of the Ot 
microwave spectra in relation to the attenua- 
tion of microwave signals. 

• Studies of the effects of rain on terrestrial and 
satellite microwave paths, and development 
of predictive techniques. 

• Development of improved models for pre- 
dicting multihop high frequency. 


COMMERCE 


55 


DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE 


OVERVIEW— OFFICE OF THE UNDER SECRETARY OF 
DEFENSE FOR RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING 

Submitted by Dr. George Gamota, Staff Specialist for Research, Office of thie 

Director, Electronics and Phiysical Sciences 

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY 

Prepared by Dr. Ivan R. Hers finer Jr.. Assistant Director for Research), Directorate of Army 

Researcfi 

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 

Submitted by Dr. Robert J. Lundegard, Tecfinlcal Director (Acting), Office of Naval Researcfi 

DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE 

Submitted by Dr. Kennethi L Jordan. Jr., Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for Research) and 

Development, Air Force 

DEFENSE ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECTS AGENCY 

Submitted by Lt. Col. William A. Wfiitaker, Special t\/}illtary Assistant to tfie Director of Defense 

Advanced Researcfi Projects Agency 


THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE OVERVIEW 


Science and technology in this country have 
grown substantially during the past 30 years and 
can be correlated with the support of basic re- 
search by the Federal Government. The military 
departments recognized early the value of basic 
research and developed methods for the support 
of researchers, which during and after World War 
II played a major part in the Federal research 
effort in science and engineering. 

During the sixties, the National Aeronautics 
and Space Administration (NASA) and the Na- 
tional Science Foundation (NSF) began to support 
basic research, following to a large degree the 
methods and patterns developed earlier by the 
military departments. Because of this new sup- 
port, the Department of Defense's (DOD's) share 
of federally supported research dropped from 
over 60 percent to slightly over 20 percent in this 
period even though the actual dollar amount was 
increasing. In the late sixties and early seventies 
most of the previous patterns of growth in the 
support for basic research became stabilized and 
levels of support were even decreased if one 
takes into account inflation factors. (See Figure 1 .) 


Present Program 

The present DOD research program provides a 
long-term foundation upon which to develop op- 
tions for the solution of national security prob- 
lems. It includes research in such fields as phys- 
ics, chemistry, mathematics and engineering, and 
those aspects of the environmental, biological, 
medical, and social sciences that are unique to the 
military. About 40 percent of the research pro- 
gram is performed in the DOD laboratories, 40 
percent in universities and colleges, and most of 
the remainder in industry. Table I shows the dis- 
tribution of research funding for all three per- 
formers. 

Five major organizations in DOD have major 
responsibilities for the research program: the 
Army, Navy, and Air Force, the Defense Ad- 
vanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). and 
the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for 
Research and Engineering (USDRE). USDRE 
(formerly the Director of Defense Research and 
Engineering) has the overall responsibility to set 
funding levels and provide policy and guidance 
for the DOD research and development programs. 


56 


Figure 1. Department of Defense research program funding trends 


800 


700 


600 


500 


400 


300 


(Millions of Dollars) 


CONSTANT DOLLARS 
(FY 78) 


»•••••••" 


•...••' V •*' 


r 


CURRENT DOLLARS 


J L 


_L 


J L 


J L 


64 


Source: DOD 


66 


68 


70 72 

Fiscal Year 


74 


76 


78 


80 


Table 1. Allocation of research funding for fiscal years 1976, 
1977. and 1978 (in millions of dollars). 


FY 76 


FY 77 


FY 78 


Army 


In-house 


51 


61 


60 


Universities 


18 


29 


34 


Other contracts 


10 


8 


8 


Total 


79 


98 


102 


Navy 


In-house 


58 


73 


78 


Universities 


50 


62 


75 


Other contracts 


21 


20 


20 


Total 


129 


155 


173 


Air Force 


In-house 


48 


21 


21 


Universities 


24 


33 


37 


Other contracts 


12 


31 


37 


Total 


84 


85 


95 


DARPA 


Universities 


14 


17 


20 


Other contracts 


18 


18 


22 


Total 


32 


35 


42 


Source: DOD 


Each military department has an office of re- 
search which manages most of the contract re- 
search programs. The history, tradition, and orga- 
nization of each department, as well as DARPA, 


will be treated separately in the following chap- 
ters. 

Recent Research Initiatives 

Here briefly are listed recent initiatives that are 
common to the programs of the military depart- 
ments: 

• Commitment to real growth of DOD research 
funding 

• Increased emphasis on university research. 
Regarding the first initiative, the Department 

has initiated actions to increase research, and, 
since FY 1976, a turnaround in the funding has 
been achieved (Figure 1). 

The second initiative strengthens DOD-univer 
sity ties in areas of potential interest to the long- 
term needs of the national defense. Emphasis will 
be placed on the quality of the basic research and 
on innovation. A DOD committee will be estab- 
lished to help guide the Departments university 
research programs. 


The Future 

The Department intends to continue its empha- 
sis on a strong and healthy research program. The 
program will continue to be carried out by in- 

DEFENSE 57 


house laboratories, universities, and industry. 
Each offers unique strengths and capabilities that 
must be used to provide technical options for long- 
term national security needs. The objective of the 
Department is not only to focus on military needs 
but also to provide a program that fully comple- 


ments the total national research program, it is 
through the combined efforts of the research ele- 
ments of the country that a viable and optimum 
research program can be maintained for the 
achievement of defense objectives. 


DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY 


The Army's Mission 

The basic mission of the United States Army is 
to foster stability, peace, and security, and to 
provide for the defense of the United States in 
conjunction with the other armed forces. The role 
of the Army is drawn from many interrelated 
sources — legal, philosophical, and historical. As 
an expression of the will and intent of the Con- 
gress, the Army's legal role — as expressed in title 
10, United States Code, section 3062 — is the prin- 
cipal basis of Army philosophy and doctrine. 
Under this statute: 

It is the intent of Congress to provide an Army 
that is capable, in conjunction with the other 
armed forces, of preserving the peace and secu- 
rity ... of the United States; . . . supporting 
the national policies . . . implementing the na- 
tional objectives; . . . and overcoming any na- 
tions responsible for aggressive acts that imper- 
il the peace and security of the United States. 

. . . (the Army), shall be organized, trained, 
and equipped primarily for prompt and sus- 
tained combat incident to operations on land 
. . . (and) ... is responsible for the prepara- 
tion of land forces necessary for the effective 
prosecution of war except as otherwise as- 
signed and, in accordance. with integrated . . . 
mobilization plans, for the expansion of the 
peacetime components of the Army to meet the 
needs of war. 

The law establishes a fundamental relationship 
between the role, philosophy, and doctrine of the 
Army and the broad considerations of the United 
States national security, policies, and objectives. 
The importance of this relationship is further ac- 
centuated by the present unsettled world situa- 
tion. So considered, the Army's role is to train, 
equip, and organize its forces to provide the de- 
terrence and assurance required to further United 
States national security interests in the world. 
The Army's basic role within the American 


defense establishment is unchanging, but the real 
world in which that role must be played is shifting 
dramatically. As a result, areas of actual and po- 
tential turbulence are increasing significantly. 
Within this environment of change, it is the mis- 
sion of the Army to carry out the landpower tasks 
of the United States so that turbulence is reduced, 
stability preserved, and peace promulgated. These 
are the broad objectives beyond any war, and 
their achievement requires the Army to be able to 
defeat enemy forces in land combat and to estab- 
lish control over land and people. This is the basic 
rationale for maintaining the Army, in peace as 
well as in war. 

No one can predict with certainty how the 
United States may be called upon to use its mili- 
tary power. Military forces must be prepared to 
support the national strategy in the face of any 
aspect of the threat. They should first of all be able 
to deter conflict; then to control war if one erupts; 
and finally, to conclude hostilities. This imposes an 
almost unlimited range of missions on the Army. It 
must be ready for, at least, the most important of 
them. This fundamental outlook is the galvanizing 
force behind the Army's posture. It means that the 
Army must stand ready to do anything modern mil- 
itary operations demand of American landpower, 
both today and in the future. 


Definition of Basic Research 

In furtherance of its mission, the" Army sup- 
ports an extensive research program including 
basic research. Although the Army does not spe- 
cifically define "basic research," the operating 
definition for "research" is: 

.scientific study and experimentation direct- 
ed toward: increasing knowledge and under- 
standing in those fields of the physical, engi- 
neering, environmental and life sciences related 
to long-term national security needs; providing 
fundamental knowledge required for the solu- 


58 


DEFENSE 


tion of military problems; and forming a part of 
the base for (a) subsequent exploratory and 
advanced developments in Defense-related 
technologies and (b) new or improved military 
functional capabilities in areas such as commu- 
nications, detection, tracking, surveillance, pro- 
pulsion, mobility, guidance and control, naviga- 
tion, energy conversion, materials and struc- 
tures, and personnel support. 


Role of Basic Research 

The Army's policy concerning support of re- 
search is to: 

• Maintain a strong and progressive research 
base by conducting a broad and continuing 
research program, including an adequate in- 
house capability, to provide fundamental 
knowledge with emphasis on those areas of 
special promise to the Army. 

• Encourage and ensure investigation of new 
ideas and concepts that may contribute to the 
Army mission and/or reduce the cost of 
maintaining and operating Army systems and 
equipment. 

• Encourage multiservice support of those fac- 
ets of research that will affect the develop- 
ment programs of more than one military 
service. 

• Support and conduct research in the fields of 
training and education for the broad purpose 
of reducing training time and costs and in- 
creasing training effectiveness. 

• Maintain effective contact between the De- 
partment of the Army and scientists of the 
United States and, when appropriate, other 
nations of the free world. 


Examples of Basic Research 

During the past 10 years there have been many 
significant research projects (intramural and extra- 
mural) that have been supported or accomplished 
by the Army. Twelve of these projects, which 
show the breadth of the Army research spectrum, 
are listed below. 

Trace Chemistry of Tropical Atmospheres 

Dr. J. P. Lodge, Jr., and his team from the Na- 
tional Center for Atmospheric Research devel- 
oped or adopted a series of tests for precise mea- 
surement of trace gases at remote tropical field 
sites. Using these tests, they conducted extensive 
studies in the American tropics to determine the 


temporal and spacial atmospheric trace substance 
concentrations in a variety of tropical environ- 
ments, shoreline vs. inland, open vs. forest, be- 
low vs. above the forest canopy, ground vs. aloft, 
and dry vs. wet season, for which information 
had been unavailable. They succeeded in charac- 
terization of sinks and sources of the various nat- 
ural and anthropogenic atmospheric contaminants. 
They contributed to the closing of a large gap in 
definition of global concentration of trace sub- 
stances for incorporation into global models of net 
source and sink strengths of the various natural 
and anthropogenic atmospheric contaminants. The 
findings also contributed to: 

• Design and development of the chemical per- 
sonnel detector (SNIFFER) used in Vietnam 
after 1967 (and considered for the Sinai 
peacekeeping in 1976) 

• Understanding of the mechanism for deter- 
ioration of material in the tropics 

• Test and evaluation of material by the US 
Army Tropic Test Center 

• Techniques for measurement of trace gases 
in the field 

• Background measurements for pollution, air 
quality, and global monitoring for climatic 
change. 

References: 

Lodge. J. P., Jr. and Pate, J. B., I%6: "Atmospheric Gases 
and Particulates in Panama," Science, l.'i.t, 408-410. 

lodge, J. P., Jr.. Machado, P. A., Pate, J. B.. Sheesley. D. C. 
and Wartburg, A. F., 1974: "Atmospheric Trace Chemistry in 
the American Humid Tropics," Tellus XXVI, 250-253. 

Miles. D. L., Pate, J. B.. and Lodge, J. P., 1970: "Atmospher- 
ic Nitrous Oxide Concentrations in the Humid Tropics," J. 
Geophys Res., 75, p 2922-2926. 

Polyphosphazenes 

Professor H. R. Allcock, Pennsylvania State 
University, has found that polyphosphazenes, 
consisting of an inorganic backbone , high polymer 
system based on alternating phosphorous and ni- 
trogen atoms, possess exceptional resistance to 
fuels, oils, and lubricants in addition to low tem- 
perature flexibility. The practical utility of the 
polyphosphazenes lies in the ease with which dif- 
ferent side groups can be attached to the back- 
bone. Because different side groups impart differ- 
ent properties to the polymers, materials with 
specific technological applications can be tailor- 
made. Polyphosphazenes are now used in non- 
burning gaskets, seals, 0-rings, pipelines, and 
expanded foam applications where oil and solvent 
resistance and low temperature flexibility are criti- 
cal properties. Future uses are envisioned in the 
areas of biomedical reconstruction plastics and 
nonburning textile fibers. 

DEFENSE 59 


An excellent review of these materials entitled 
"Polyphosphazenes: New Polymers with Inorgan- 
ic Backbone Atoms" hy H. R. Allcock may be 
found in Science, 193. 1214 (1976), which also 
lists the original references pertaining to this re- 
search. 

Enzymatic Saccharification of Waste Cellulose 
to Glucose for Production of Useful Products 

Cellulose, the most abundant organic material 
on earth, is used by man in industry, for structur- 
al purposes, textiles, and paper, but it does not 
serve as food for man or most animals. Research 
at the Army Natick laboratories on the decompo- 
sition of cellulosic materials by microorganisms 
has paved the way for the enzymatic breakdown 
of cellulose into a simple sugar-glucose. This pro- 
cess can have a significant impact on problems of 
the future relating to foods, energy, and chemical 
feed stocks, as shown by the following examples: 

• Production of glucose from cellulosic waste. 
The glucose can be used directly as food for 
man and animals, or indirectly through the 
production of food yeasts. 

• Improvement of texture, digestibility, and 
nutritive value of foods. 

• Release of desirable products from plant tis- 
sues. Such products include leaf protein, 
drugs, essential oils, natural insecticides, ol- 
ive oil, rubber, and agar. 

• Use of the glucose as a chemical feed stock 
for the synthesis of diverse chemicals now 
utilizing petroleum as a raw material. 

The following pamphlet reviews the work and 
includes published references: Ed. Mary Man- 
dels, Edwin Reese, and Leo A. Spano, Enzymat- 
ic Conversion of Cellulosic Materials: Technology 
and Applications. 1976. An Interscience Publica- 
tion. 

Electron-beam (e-beam) Resist Materials for 
Integrated Circuits 

In the Electronics Technology and Devices 
Laboratory at Ft. Monmouth, New Jersey, Drs. 
E. H. Poindexter and J.N. Helbert (in collabora- 
tion with Professor L. Kevan at Wayne State 
University) have been concerned with improving 
a beam-resist writing speed by factors of about 20 
to 30, and attacking this problem at the most basic 
chemical level. The first approach was a systemat- 
ic substitution of chemical groups along the main 
chain molecules of certain polymers, selected ini- 
tially on the basis of potential applications tracta- 
bility. Functional substituents such as halogens 
and cyanides were introduced to favor chain scis- 
sion and discourage subsequent polymer self- 
healing via cross-linking. For. this basic radiation 

60 DEFENSE 


chemistry, the techniques of electron spin reso- 
nance, viscometry, membrane osmometry, and 
gel-permeation chromatography were used to as- 
sess polymer degradation, i.e., sensitivity to the 
e-beam radiation. In addition, the physical chem- 
istry of the resist solvent was studied by a imique 
low-field dynamic nuclear polarization technique. 
By these methods, basic science was brought \o 
hear on a problem area heretofore treated largely 
on an empirical basis. 

The program has so far resulted in discovery of 
several resists of substantially greater sensitivity, 
and in new solvent developers which have a very 
high difl"erential dissolution ratio for further en- 
hanced lithographic performance. The chlorinated 
resists developed from this research have an in- 
herent e-beam sensitivity almost as great as the 
sulfone resists developed at Bell Labs, but are 
much more stable and tractable for use in produc- 
tion. In contrast to the sulfones, these resists are 
compatible with advanced radiation processing 
methods and have been adopted for production 
testing by Texas Instruments. Other potential in- 
dustrial users (both in this country and abroad) 
have also expressed an interest in them. 

The essential aspects of the program have been 
documented in eight technical papers, of which 
three are: 

Increased Radiation Degradation m Methyl Melhacrylale t'o- 
polymers. J. Appl. Polymer Sci. /y. 1201 (\')7^) 

Matrix KNDOR of Polyenvl Radicals in Polymers. J. Polymer 
Sci. (Polymer Physics Ed.) ';.!.s:.S (197.'!) 

Poly(methyl a-chloroacrylate) as a New Positive Electron- 
Beam Resist, J. Electrochem Soc 124. I5S (1977) 

Pressure Oxidation of Silicon 

Silicon, the principal semiconductor material 
used in the manufacture of discrete and integrated 
circuit components, must be subjected to a con- 
ventional high-temperature (l,20fl°C) thermal oxi- 
dation during device fabrication. It was widely 
recognized that high temperature induces structur- 
al defects and results in lower yield, performance, 
and reliability of the final device, and raises prac- 
tical problems of device reproducibility and high 
cost. There has been strong motivation within the 
semiconductor industry for more than a decade to 
develop a lower temperature oxidation method for 
silicon integrated circuit devices, but a satisfacto- 
ry process was not found. 

An experimental system was designed and 
completed at the U. S. Army Electronics Tech- 
nology and Devices Laboratory in which silicon 
wafers were successfully oxidized at 800°C (4(K)°C 
lower than standard oxidation) and a pressure of 
2,(X)0 psi of oxygen (within commercial bottle-gas 
range). Scanning electron microscopy showed the 
oxide layers to be structurally homogeneous and 


coherent. Electron spin resonance confirmed a 
lowering of defect concentration relative to oxides 
prepared conventionally. Measurements of flat- 
band voltage shift under bias-temperature stress, 
of surface state charge density, and of dielectric 
strength show values substantially better than 
those generally reported for conventionally grown 
oxides. Superior gate, field, and isolation oxides 
for a wide range of applications in integrated cir- 
cuit devices (e.g., LSI digital devices for secure 
communications and other man-portable, air- 
borne, or munitions delivery electronics) can be 
obtained in shorter processing times and at re- 
duced oxidation temperatures by dry pressure 
oxidation. 

The potential for reduced production costs is of 
interest to several major industrial electronic 
manufacturers, which have requested details from 
the Army on requisite instrumentation and pro- 
cessing techniques. Suitable pressure-oxidation 
equipment is being developed on a production 
scale for industry under Defense Advanced Re- 
search Projects Agency (DARPA) sponsorship. 
Research and device programs are being under- 
taken cooperatively with industry and academia. 

Six publications and invited presentations have 
resulted from the program, three of which are: 

R. J. Zelo, C. G. Thornton, E. Hryckowian and C. D. Bosco, 
Low Temperature Thermal Oxidation of Silicon by Dry Oxy- 
gen Pressure Above 1 Atm. J. Electrochem. Soc. 122. 1409 
(1975). 

R. J. Zeto, C. G. Thornton, E. Hrychowian, and C. D. Bosco. 
Low Temperature Pressure-Oxidation of Silicon for Integrated 
Circuit Technology, Army Science Conference Proceedings. 
USDepartmenlof Defense, Vol. Ill, 4/.'( 1976). 

R. J. Zeto. High Pressure Oxides. Gordon Research Confer- 
ence on Metal-lnsulator-Semiconductor Systems, Kimball- 
Union Academy, Meridcn, New Hampshire, August 1976. 

The STRATCOM Program 

The stratospheric composition (STRATCOM) 
program is a long-term, multipurpose program for 
integrated, correlated measurements of strato- 
spheric parameters related to composition, ther- 
modynamics, and radiative balance. It provides 
the means for the Army to obtain the necessary 
data base to develop and validate a chemical ki- 
netic model needed to determine atmospheric 
effects on ballistic missile defense and communi- 
cation systems. The program was initiated by the 
Atmospheric Sciences Laboratory at White Sands 
Missile Range (WSMR), New Mexico, in 1968 to 
take advantage of new developments in balloon 
technology which provided the capability to place 
a stable platform with 66 pounds of scientific pay- 
load at the top of the stratosphere (50 km) for a 
period of 24 hours (STRATCOM I). The obvious 
advantages offered through large balloon plat- 


forms quickly led to joint agency experiments of 
ever-expanding complexity and scope. STRAT- 
COM VII, conducted at WSMR in September 
1976, was sponsored by three Federal agencies 
and involved experimenters from 10 laboratories 
(Government, university, and private industry). 
More than 20 on-board instruments measured 
atmospheric composition and structure for 34 
hours in the altitude range of 23 to 39 km. In ad- 
dition, supporting measurements were made with 
sensors on rockets, small balloons, and satellites. 
Joint sponsorship and funding for the STRAT- 
COM program allows for a more comprehensive 
program than could be achieved by any single 
organization. The scientific value and cost effec- 
tiveness are now well known; the program de- 
scription was included in briefings to the United 
States Senate Subcommittee on the Upper Atmos- 
phere and is part of the Congressional Record. A 
special session of the American Geophysical 
Union national meeting in December 1974 was 
devoted to STRATCOM 111 and STRATCOM IV, 
and a session for STRATCOM VII was held in 
May 1977. 

References: 

Hearings before the Subcommittee on the Upper Atmosphere 
of the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, 
United States Senate. Ninety-Fourth Congress. Second Ses- 
sion, February 25 and March I. 1976. 

Randhawa, J. S., 1969: "Ozone Measurements from a Stable 
Platform near the Stratopause Level," J. Geophys. Res.. 74, 

4588-4590. 

Ballard, H. N.. et al., 1970: "A Constant Altitude Balloon 
Experiment at 48 Kilometers," J. Geophys. Res.. Vol 75, No. 
18. 3501-3512. 

Beyers, N. J., and B. T. Miers, 1970: "Measurement from a 
Zero-Pressure Balloon in the Stratopause (48 km)." 
J. Geophys. Res, 75. 35 13-3522. 

Ballard, H. N., et al., 1972: 'Atmospheric Tidal Measure- 
ments at 50 km from a Constant Altitude Balloon," J. Appl. 
Meterol.. Vol II, No. 7. 1138-1149. 

Ballard, H. N., 1976: "Temperature Measurements in the 
Stratosphere from Balloon-Borne Instrument Platforms, 1968- 
1975," ECOM-5808, Proceedings Ninth AFGL Scientific Bal- 
loon Symposium, October 1976. 


Thermomechanical Treatment of Aluminum 
Alloys 

A U.S. -Italy cooperative research program on 
aluminum alloys was performed over the period 
of 1968-1975, the objective of which was to study 
the effects of alloy composition, ingot solidifica- 
tion techniques, homogenization, and complex 
combinations of plastic deformation and thermal 
treatments on properties of aluminum alloy in- 
gots. 

DEFENSE 61 


A significant accomplishment of the program 
was that two new thermomechanical treatments 
(TMT) resulted for high-strength aluminum alloys. 
The importance of this accomplishment is that 
7XXX ("seven thousand") series aluminum al- 
loys, which are major "work-horse" structural 
alloys, can now be produced having superior 
combinations of properties (strength, ductility, 
toughness, and fatigue and corrosion resistance) 
unmatched by existing commercial alloys. Follow- 
on development, and manufacturing methods and 
technology programs have developed TMT for 
thicker sections through in-house efforts at 
Frankford Arsenal and contractual efforts at Al- 
coa and Boeing Vertol, for such applications as 
lightweight armor and helicopter forgings. 

The in-house research effort was performed at 
the Pitman-Dunn Labs of Frankford Arsenal, and 
the Italian program was funded through the 
Army's European Research Office. 

Patents: 

3706606: E. DiRusso and M. Conserva. Thermomechanical 
Treatment Procedures for Heat Treatable Aluminum Alloys. 

3743549: E. DiRusso. M. Buratii and M. Conserva. Thermo- 
mechanical Process for Improving the Toughness of High 
Strength Aluminum Alloys. 

Publications: 

E. DiRusso, M. Conserva, F. Gatto, and H. Markus, Thermo- 
mechanical Treatments of High Strength Al-Zn-Mg (Cu) Al- 
loys, Met. Trans., Vol 4. April 1973, pp 1133-1144. 

E. DiRusso. M. Conserva. M. Buratti. and F. Gatto. A New 
Thermomechanical Procedure for Improving the Ductility and 
Toughness of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloys, Materials Sci. and Eng.. 
April 1974. Vol 14. No. I. pp 23-26. 

New Classes of Permanent Magnetic 
Materials 

Research by W. E. Wallace and R. S. Craig at 
the University of Pittsburgh sponsored by the 
U.S. Army Research Office on the magnetic prop- 
erties of a class of compounds called rare earth 
intermetallics has been coupled with military and 
industrial research and development to result in a 
new group of materials for permanent magnets. 
The most powerful of these, a compound of sa- 
marium and cobalt (called SAMCO), has a mag- 
netic energy product (a measure of the magnetic 
strength of a permanent magnet) five times that of 
the best conventional permanent magnets. This 
high-energy product allows large reductions in 
size and weight with improvement in performance 
reliability. The Army currently uses these mag- 
nets in engine alternators for helicopters, and they 
are projected for use in the guidance system of 
the SAM-D missile. Other potential Army applica- 
tions include electrical generators and motors, 
fuses, and fuel cell components. 

62 DEFENSE 


References: 

Proceedings of the 12th Rare Earth Research Conference. July 
18-22, 1976. Vols 1 and 2. 

W. E. Wallace. Rare Earth intermetallics. Materials Science 
Series. Academic Press. Inc.. 1973. 

E. A. Nesbitt and J. H. Wernick. Rare Earth Permanent Mag- 
nets. Materials Science Series. Academic Press, inc.. 1973. 


Research on Fluidics 

The capability to use fluidics in high perform- 
ance systems has been enhanced significantly by 
research on the laminar proportional amplifier 
(LPA) conducted at the Harry Diamond Laborato- 
ries (HDL). Fluid mechanics techniques from first 
principles were used to investigate the flow phe- 
nomena in fluidic components. Expanded experi- 
mental facilities were used for flow visualization, 
and dynamic and transient response measurements 
of the LPA. Computer codes were investigated for 
developing algorithms. 

The initial LPA study was reported in 1972 by 
HDL scientists. The first use of the developed 
algorithms for system design was reported at the 
American Society of Mechanical Engineers winter 
meeting in 1975, and the algorithms became uni- 
versally available in 1976. These algorithms, along 
with circuit techniques, were used to reduce the 
temperature sensitivity of hydraulic fluidic sys- 
tems. The close coupling of fluidic research and 
system needs resulted in the use of LPA's in ad- 
vanced military applications such as the UTTAS 
helicopter and in current development efforts on 
gun stabilization and turbine fuel control. These 
precision control devices are now commercially 
available, and projected use in temperature moni- 
toring systems may save considerable energy in 
process control. 

Military savings of $20 million have already 
been achieved, and the potential savings could 
easily exceed the total amount of R&D dollars 
that have been expended in fluidics. 

References: 

Carter. V. and Marsh, D. S.. HDI.-TR-149S, A Bibliography 
on Fluidics, Revision B, April 1972. 

Proceedings of the Fluidic State of the Art Symposium. .Sep- 
tember-October 1974. Volumes 1-Vi. 

Fleming. W. T. and Gamble. H. R.. HDL-CR-76-()92-l . Relia- 
bility Data for Fluidic Systems. December 1976. 

Joyce. J. W.. Manufacturing/Production-Line Applications of 
Fluidics. October 1975. 


Dynamic Stall on Airfoils Oscillating in Pitch 

The 4rmy Air Mobility Research and Develop- 
ment Laboratory investigated the effects of dy- 
namic stall on airfoils oscillating in pitch by ex- 
perimentally determining the viscous and inviscid 
characteristics of the airflow on several airfoils. 
As a result, a new understanding of the flow envi- 
ronment on an oscillating airfoil, and, in particu- 
lar, the relationship between boundary-layer be- 
havior and normal-force and pitching-moment 
behavior was obtained. An important result of 
this study was that a properly scaled cross-plot of 
normal force versus pitching moment resulted in a 
single representative curve for each airfoil, pro- 
vided the vortex had fully developed. This intro- 
duces the possibility of a method that may allow 
prediction of engineering parameters without ex- 
haustive dynamic testing of airfoils. 

References: 

W. J. McCroskey, L. W. Carr, and K. W. McAlister, [:)ynamic 
Stall Experiments on Oscillating Airfoils, AlAA Journal. Vol. 
14. No. I. January |y7ft. 

L. W. Carr, K. W. McAlister. W. J. McCroskey. Analysis of 
the Development of Dynamic Stall Based on f)scillating Airfoil 
Experiments. NASA TN D-8.^82. January 1977. 

Physical Properties and Processes in Frozen 
Ground 

Effective Army operations in cold regions are 
constricted in a significant way by the limitations 
imposed on mobility and facilities by snow cover, 
frozen ground, and freeze-thaw conditions. As 
part of its basic mission, the Army Cold Regions 
Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) 
has continuously advanced the state of the art in 
these areas. In particular, mechanical properties 
such as strengtfi, deformation, and creep have 
been examined using modern techniques and 
equipment. This has led to extremely useful ad- 
vances in the understanding of unfrozen water and 
the part it plays in the physics of the microstruc- 
tures as a function of temperature. The migration 
of unfrozen water to the advancing or retreating 
freezing front provides valuable insight into the 
understanding of the behavior of pavements and 
foundations in freeze-thaw cycles. 

This technology has been applied to the solu- 
tion of critical foundation problems such as those 
on safeguard missile sites and piles used in the 
Alaska pipeline. The study of thermophysical 
processes in permafrost has assured successful 
environmental protection schemes in the retrieval 
of northern oil resources. Significant advances 
have been achieved in the subsurface exploration 
of Arctic and subarctic terrain as a result of 
CRREL studies of the dielectric behavior of fro- 
zen ground coupled with a theoretical analysis of 


titled electromagnetic waves traveling along the 
earth's surface. 


References: 

Haynes. F. D. and Mellor, M.. Measuring the Uniaxial Com- 
pressive Strength of Ice - International Glaciological Symposi- 
um. Cambridge. England, September 1976. Proceedings. 

McGaw. R. W. and Tice. A. R., A Single Procedure to Calcu- 
late the Volume of Water Remaining Unfrozen in A Freezing 
Soil - Second Conference on Soil - Water Problems in Cold 
Regions. Edmonton. Canada. 1-2 September 1976. Proceed- 
ings. 

Tobiasson. W. and Gianotti, J.. Design Data for Construction 
in Alaska - Second International Symposium on Cold Regions 
Engineering. University of Alaska. 

Mellor, M., Engineering Properties of Snow - Symposium on 
Applied Glaciology, Cambridge. England, September 1976. 
Journal of Glaciology. 

Sellman, P. V., Arcone. S. and Delaney, A.. Preliminary Eval- 
uation of New LF Radiowave and Magnetic Induction Resis- 
tivity Units - Over Permafrost Terrain. Vancouver. British 
Columbia. Canada. October 12. 1976. 

A New Simulation Approach for Combat 
Training 

REALTRAIN, or realistic training, is a new, 
successful, and very much accepted approach for 
training U. S. combat forces. Upon completion of 
basic and advanced combat training, which is in- 
tended to impart the necessary combat skills to 
the individual soldier, it is necessary to embark on 
team training designed to weld the combat units 
into effective entities. REALTRAIN represents an 
innovation replacing current approaches utilizing 
field training exercises and maneuvers for this 
purpose. The older methods depend on referee 
determinations and judgments to assess casualties 
in the conduct of the combat exercises. These 
approaches by their very nature are cumbersome 
and prone to substantial error in casualty assess- 
ment, thus reducing much of the effectiveness of 
the training. REALTRAIN permits a soldier 
definitively to identify his target and provides 
immediate and reliable feedback concerning the 
inflicting or sustaining of casualties in simulated 
two-sided free-play combat engagements. It is a 
method far superior to those used heretofore. 
REALTRAIN itself is projected to be augmented 
by MILES, which relies on weapon-mounted laser 
devices coupled to highly sophisticated instrumen- 
tation to permit free-play engagement with minimal 
interference on the part of referees. Simultaneous- 
ly it will facilitate the recording of the necessary 
data and provide immediate casualty assessment 
feedback to the exercise participants without inter- 
vention by exercise controllers. 

The evolution of both the REALTRAIN and 
MILES systems can be traced to considerable 


DEFENSE 63 


hasic research concerned with systems, system 
development, and system measurement. 

As early as the late 1950s, the Army Research 
Institute (ARI) had embarked on a then-new area 
of research dealing with systems. At the heart of 
these efforts was the recognition that results 
based on research conducted in a static environ- 
ment possess only limited utility concerning deci- 
sions with impact on combat effectiveness. In a 
report on image systems (I), an approach to sys- 
tems research was conceptualized which consid- 
ered such factors as the structure and function of 
systems expressed in terms of Army needs. Of 
particular interest was system assessment, which 
considered such factors as subsystem versus total 
system criteria; the concept of the simple systems 
(or existing systems) as standards against which 
to assess new, more sophisticated systems; and 
the problem of system performance measurement 
in terms of a multivariate, rather than a univar- 
iate, criterion. The multivariate criterion is signifi- 
cant because it permits trade-offs among the de- 
pendent variables, as well as among the indepen- 
dent variables. This is particularly important to 
decisionmakers who must choose a system alter- 
native, since the output dimensions could influ- 
ence discussions about system configurations and 
procedures. 

Upon recognition of the complexity of systems 
research, considerable basic research effort was 
expended to develop further the concepts of sys- 
tems research (2,3,4) and simultaneously to devel- 
op the supporting tools for such research, includ- 
ing both methodology and instrumentation. Thus, 
considerable research was done on the develop- 
ment of measurement systems such as the surveil- 
lance systems measurement bed (5) technology 
and field research instrumentation (6), and a 
measurement setting for the assessment of small 
unit effectiveness (7). These measurement beds 
were designed to permit the assessment of sys- 
tems, subsystems, or components within a context 
simulating real-world conditions as much as possi- 
ble to accommodate for the measurement of the 
important interaction effects. The development of 
these measurement beds imposed the need for a 
proper sampling of the significant tasks and the 
opportunity for the experimental subjects to exe- 
cute the tasks in a realistic manner free from inap- 
propriate intrusions such as those associated with 
data collection. (The recording of data, if not a 
normal part of the subject task, is an example of 
such intrusions.) It is this focus of basic research 
that led to the development of dynamic, realistic, 
highly instrumented measurement beds which in 
turn give rise to the development of REALTRAIN 
and MILKS. REALTRAIN and MILES merely 
reflect a translation of the realism and instrumenta- 

64 DEFENSE 


tion in test and evaluation to that of training and 
thus are direct beneficiaries of the basic research 
on system assessment. 

References: 

(1) Birnbiium. A. H.. TRN 122. Human Factors Research in 
Image Systems Status Report, .^0 June 1962. 

(2) Uhlaner. J. E. et al.. TR S-1, Psychological Research in 
National Defense Today, June l%7. 

O) Uhlaner. J. E.. TR S-2, Human Performance Jobs, Jobs, 
and Systems Psychology — The Systems Measurement Bed, 
October 1970. 

(4) Uhlaner. J. E.. TR S-3. Management Leadership in System 
Measurement Beds. August 197.''. 

(5) Birnbaum. A. H.. el al., TRR-1160. Summary of BESRL 
Surveillance Research, September 1969. 

(6) Hyman. A. et al., TRN 22.1, Human Performance Experi- 
mentation in Night Operations: Technology and Instrumenta- 
tion for Field Research. June 1970. 

(7) Sternberg. Jack. J., el al., TRN 237, Effects of STANO 
Sensors on Small Unit Effectiveness-Part I, January 1972. 


Similarly, the Army has many interesting re- 
search projects that are currently in progress. 
Five such projects are listed below. 

Drug Development Program 

The drug development program is a multidisci- 
plinary. intra- and extramural research effort co- 
ordinated and managed by Walter Reed Army In- 
stitute of Research. Rather than the usual empiri- 
cal search for efficacious drugs, this program in- 
cludes a computer-assisted rational search for 
new drugs. Synthesis of candidate new drugs is 
based on structural relationships with known 
agents; efficacy is screened through several bio- 
logical systems. Further studies on toxicology, 
pharmacology, metabolism, and pharmacokinetics 
are designed to lead in planned sequence to even- 
tual clinical trials. This effort was originally di- 
rected toward treatment of drug-resistant falcipa- 
rum malaria, but its goals have recently been 
broadened to begin the search for new drugs ef- 
fective against other diseases of military import- 
ance. 

Submillimeter Wave Research 

Relatively recent advances in the development 
of sources and detectors have stimulated a parallel 
interest within several Army laboratories in sub- 
millimeter technology. Some of the recent scien- 
tific advances have included research on the opti- 
cally pumped far infrared laser, Schottky barrier 
detection, and relativistic electron-beam genera- 
tion of electromagnetic waves. At the same time. 


there has arisen an increased awareness of the 
potential of enhancing imaging and sensing under 
normally obscured visibility by using submillime- 
ter techniques. Consequently, there has been in- 
creasing activity in research on coherent sources, 
propagation, and detection as part of a coordinat- 
ed Army-wide program. Contractors participating 
in the program are the Georgia Institute of Tech- 
nology and Lincoln Laboratories. In-house work 
is in progress at the Army Missile Command, 
Harry Diamond Laboratories, and the Army Elec- 
tronics Command. 

Research on Percolation Theory 

Percolation theory is a computer simulation 
technique which permits prediction of the distribu- 
tion of phases in multiphase systems, and thereby 
mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties of 
alloys and a wide variety of composite materials. 

Thus far, the results of in-house efforts at the 
Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center 
have been beneficially applied toward the predic- 
tion of optimized structures of materials for a 
host of diverse end uses, such as gradient armor, 
reduction of blast damage, and noise suppression 
(e.g., optimum pore structures in foamed materi- 
als). Further improvements in the technique and 
applications of the technique are in process. 

Reference: 

"Phase Connectivity in a Two-Phase Microstructure Monte- 
Carlo Calculation of Topological and Percolation Properties". 
George D. Qiiinn. George H. Bishop, and Ralph J. Harrison. 
Pub. in Nuclear Metallurgy. 20. 1215-1225, 1976. The Proceed- 
ings of 1976 International Conference on Computer Simulation 
for Materials Applications, NBS, April 1976. 

Pulsed Positive Negative Ion Chemical 
Ionization Mass Spectrometry 

Conventional mass spectrometry, a technique 
based on the generation of positive ions by the 
impact of electrons upon a vaporized sample, has 
long provided the most effective way to identify 
complex chemical compounds. The ions in general 
acquire considerable energy in the course of their 
formation, and as a result rapidly undergo exten- 
sive fragmentation, limiting the amount of struc- 
tural information obtainable in the analysis. In the 
chemical ionization approach, electron transfer to 
form sample ions occurs in an indirect manner: 
Ions are formed by electron impact upon relative- 
ly stable gases, which then transfer electrons to or 
from the sample molecules. Less excess energy is 
present, and comparable concentrations of posi- 
tive and negative ions are produced. 

Professor Donald F. Hunt of the University of 
Virginia, a pioneer in the development and appli- 


cation of the chemical ionization technique, has 
succeeded in coupling it with an effective means 
to detect positive and negative ions simultaneous- 
ly. This he has accomplished by using convention- 
al electrostatic techniques to draw alternate bursts 
of positive and negative ions from the ionization 
chamber, and then analyzing the beam with a 
quadripole filter. Two matched electron multi- 
pliers, one each for positive and negative ions, 
allow simultaneous display of each signal as a 
function of ionic mass (or more correctly, mass/ 
charge ratio). The instrumentation and its use 
have been described and its potential assessed in 
detail. 

The reduction in ion fragmentation, the en- 
hanced generation of negative ions, and the added 
information provided by the analysis for both posi- 
tive and negative species, provide a dramatic im- 
provement in the diagnostic capability. This is ac- 
companied by a hundred-to-thousand-fold in- 
crease in sample ion current at the detectors, 
translating into an increase in sensitivity to the 10'- 
or 10-1'* gram level. The basic technique is being 
further developed for the detection, identification, 
and quantification of volatile and nonvolatile or- 
ganic and inorganic substances at the nanogram 
(10-9) to femtogram (lO-i"^) level. 

Remote Sensing of Wind and Atmospheric 
Structure by Lidar 

Dr. J. A. Weinman and his group at the Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin have developed a high resolu- 
tion monostatic lidar (laser radar) system for 
probing the lower atmosphere. Light pulses from 
the lidar are scattered from aerosols which occur 
naturally in the atmosphere boundary layer. The 
time that elapses between the emission and return 
of this light is used to determine the range at 
which the aerosols are located. The magnitude of 
the return signal has been determined to be pro- 
portional to the densities of aerosols at that range. 
The aerosols are not uniformly distributed in the 
boundary layer, and the motion of these natural 
aerosol density inhomogeneities can be tracked. 
Measurement of the rate of displacement of the 
inhomogeneities renders it feasible to measure 
wind remotely in near real time. By changing the 
lidar elevation and digitally processing the data, 
near real time vertical cross-section displays of 
optically "clear" atmospheric convection can be 
made visible, and such diverse atmospheric struc- 
tures as inversions, convective plumes, incipient 
clouds, and waves are observable. Time series of 
such pictures permit the complex motion field 
under cumulus clouds to be observed. Thus, at- 
mospheric structure and wind can be obtained on 
a time scale and resolution not feasible with cur- 
rent meteorological observation systems. 

DEFENSE 65 


References: 

Kunkel, K. E., Eloranta, E. W. and Weinman. J. A., 1977: 
"Visualization of Eddies in the Planetary Boundary Layer by 
Means of Lidar," Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorologi- 
cal Society (to be published). 

Eloranta. E. W., Kubg, J. M. and Weinman. E. W.. 1975: 
"Determination of Wind-Speed in the Boundary Layer by Mon- 
ostatic Lidar." Journal of Applied Meteorology. 14. 1485-1489. 


Current and Future Research 
Emphasis 

During FY 1977, six critical topics have been 
designated as Army science and technology areas 
of emphasis to respond to high-priority Army user 
needs and to indicate to Army laboratories where 
research is especially needed. These areas will be 
emphasized in the Army's research program during 
the next three years. 

• One ai-ea is millimeter (mm) and submillime- 
ter (submm) wave radiation, which can pene- 
trate fogs and battlefield smokes. The Army 
is seeking new generators, detectors and tun- 
ing componentry in mm and submm and is 
studying propagation and factors affecting 
imaging. 

• In smokes and aerosols, the Army is investi- 
gating the effective use of smokes to obscure 
friendly operations while allowing freedom of 
mobility and targeting capabilities. 

• A more comprehensive compilation and anal- 
ysis of target and background signatures is 
required to ensure effectiveness of our guid- 
ed weapons in smokes, dusts, and inclement 
weather. 

• Requirements for higher muzzle velocities, 
longer ranges and higher rates of fire have 
magnified gun tube wear and erosion prob- 
lems. The Army is taking steps to assure that 
wear and erosion research will be responsive 
to short-and long-term needs. 

• Reliable analytical and predictive techniques 
are required for improved armor design and 
development of effective penetrators for 
armor penetration. This complex problem 
requires a well-coordinated program in me- 
chanics and materials sciences. 

• Recent gun charge design problems also high- 
light the need for a comprehension of the 
processes of ignition and combustion of gun 
propellants. These efforts are intended to 
predict and control the response of propel- 
lants by evolving models for prediction of 
ignition and burning rates. 

Program priorities for the next 10-year time peri- 

66 DEFENSE 


od have also been established. Fifteen such 
"thrust areas" are described below: 

Atmospheric sciences research contributing to the 
Army smoke program. The use of smokes to ac- 
complish many apparent military objectives ne- 
cessitates fundamental research in four atmos- 
pheric disciplines. First is cloud and aerosol phys- 
ics, for better understanding of nucleation and 
growth processes and more complete knowledge 
on particle size spectra, shape, composition, and 
distribution. Second is the transmission properties 
of the natural or manmade atmospheric aerosol, 
for a detailed understanding of absorption and 
scattering of electromagnetic signals, particularly 
in the infrared and optical ranges. Third is remote 
sensing of atmospheric aerosol and properties 
necessary to the prediction of transport and dis- 
semination of aerosols. Fourth is consideration of 
small-scale atmospheric processes which are de- 
pendent on interaction of the atmosphere and ter- 
rain and have an important effect on the life cycle 
of an aerosol. The importance of integrating these 
diverse disciplines in an overall smoke program 
must be stressed. 

Food and ration research. This thrust area, food 
and ration research, supports the Army Tri-Serv- 
ice food mission. Subtopics include food micro- 
biology, irradiation, preservation, postharvest 
physiology of fruits and vegetables, time-related 
changes in meat, physiological parameters in food 
acceptance, and pest control. There are 15 work 
units currently funded. These range from studies 
on basic protein structure of storage protein in 
soybeans, ionizing radiation damage and repair in 
bacterial spores, and factors in fruit spoilage to 
new approaches to pest control through use of 
pheromones and control of genetic factors in in- 
sects. The work supported will have a large aggre- 
gate contribution to simplification or reduction of 
logistic factors in future support of field armies. 

Electrically small, active antennas. The Army 
has a requirement for shorter, less visible anten- 
nas on tanks, vehicles, and manpacks. Research 
in the field of antennas is performed to under- 
stand basic limitations of antenna radiation char- 
acteristics when the geometry of the antenna is 
substantially smaller than the respective wave- 
length to be radiated. Schemes to incorporate 
amplifiers into the antenna structure to obtain ac- 
tive antennas are investigated. Active electronic 
means are considered to improve band width and 
efficiency of these antennas. Low-profile, printed 
circuit antennas are investigated for their potential 
use as conformal antennas on Army equipment. 
The ultimate objective for manpack antennas is to 
enable the operator to communicate in any terrain 
over distances up to 10 miles without being de- 
tected. 


Wear and erosion. Research to explain, predict, 
and prevent deterioration of materials undergoing 
impingement by hot gases or particulates is urgent- 
ly needed. The Army's gun tubes, and rocket, 
missile, and aircraft turbine components are seri- 
ously and adversely affected by hot gas erosion. 
Dust erosion of helicopter rotors and rain erosion 
of missile radomes, are also severe problems. 
Mechanisms of erosion are neither well-defined 
nor understood; solutions for erosion problems 
have been largely based on empirical techniques, 
and have addressed specific combinations of ma- 
terials, geometries, and operating conditions (e.g., 
in hot gas erosion, gun tube steel, chamber con- 
figuration, projectile, propellant chemistry, pres- 
sure, and temperature). The development of quan- 
tifiable parameters is required for rational ap- 
proaches to avoid or inhibit wear and erosion. 
Analyses in the hot gas area are complex and 
must be based on interdisciplinary approaches 
embodying such diverse areas as thermometal- 
lurgy, deformation and fracture criteria, inorganic 
chemistry, fluid dynamics, and safe life predic- 
tion. 

Mathematical analysis of nonlinear systems. The 
principal thrust of the mathematics program is on 
the analysis of nonlinear systems. A significant 
component of this thrust is on the study of the 
qualitative features of the basic equations of 
classical applied mathematics which continually 
arise in many Army problems such as heat transfer 
in gun tubes, elastic-plastic analysis of structures, 
penetration mechanics, and aerodynamics, among 
others. Because these problems, in general, do 
not lend themselves to closed-form solutions, 
considerable effort is directed toward the develop- 
ment of approximate, numerical, and statistical 
methods for solving nonlinear systems including 
nonlinear partial differential equations, nonlinear 
optimization models, and nonlinear filtering and 
estimation problems. 

Dynamic loading of structures and materials. 
This major research program is concerned with 
devising the principles for predicting the deforma- 
tion and failure of structures and materials under 
dynamic loads. Strong Army interest in this re- 
search field arises due to weapon effects, armor 
defeat, projectile impact, fragmentation, explosive 
detonation, and aeroelasticity. Characteristic 
times of these loadings vary from microseconds 
to tens of milliseconds, illustrating the broad 
range over which any phenomenological model 
must be applicable. 

Improvement of helicopter performance. A ma- 
jor research program concerned with the improve- 
ment of rotorcraft performance is concentrated on 
those pacing problem areas identified by field 
experience and future air mobility objectives. 


Investigations are concerned with such areas of 
interest as dynamic stall, strongly interacting 
flows, aerodynamic drag, rotor downwash and its 
effects, rotor-generated noise, aerodynamic stabil- 
ity, and bluff body aerodynamics. Investigations 
in these basic problem areas contribute to the 
technology base required for making design stud- 
ies for specific performance requirements of fu- 
ture rotorcraft. 

Combustion processes in engines and propellants. 
Research thrusts in the general field of combus- 
tion are necessary to support Army requirements 
for efficient propulsion of weapons and air or 
ground vehicles. The understanding of combus- 
tion processes requires investigations on propel- 
lant ignition, flame propagation and stability, gas 
dynamics, chemical kinetics, detonation and de- 
flagration, thermodynamics, and materials. The 
basic energy source, either propellant or fuel, 
requires a fundamental examination as to such 
characteristics as stability, ignition or flash point, 
fire safety, thermal capacity, aging processes, and 
the energy release mechanisms. 

Submillimeter technology. The Army's interest 
in submillimeter technology is for imaging radar 
and other applications. Emphasis is currently 
being placed on obtaining information that would 
make possible sensitive, compact detectors that 
operate at room temperature (Schottky barrier). 
The development of high-power coherent sources 
is also a priority in this program. Current efforts 
include the investigation of optically pumped 
submillimeter lasers. A small effort is being devot- 
ed to the characteristics of compact electron beam 
pumped devices. It is expected that this thrust 
area will be expanded, particularly with regard to 
source and detector research. Several unusual 
approaches are currently being considered for in- 
clusion in the program. 

Fire safe fuels. This thrust area is concerned 
with fuel mist flammability and the mechanism by 
which certain additives can inhibit the ignition of 
fuel sprayed or spewed into the atmosphere as the 
result of the rupture of a fuel tank. Four work 
units are currently underway, each examining the 
basic questions from a different perspective. One 
concerns mist flammability under initially nontur- 
bulent conditions, and the effect of varying the 
speed of flame propagation. The rest address 
questions at a molecular level: the reaction with 
oxygen of free radicals implicated in the initial 
step, the intervention of halocarbon radicals or of 
halogen atoms in inhibiting processes, the rates of 
the various chemical reactions, and the identifica- 
tion of intermediate species by mass spectroscopy 
or matrix isolation infrared absorption spectrosco- 
py- 
Armor penetration. The interaction of kinetic 

DEFENSE 67 


energy penetrators and armor are vitally impor- 
tant phenomena which are not well understood. 
At present a comprehensive theory of penetration 
does not exist. Although great strides have been 
made in the generation and use of both sophisti- 
cated computer simulations and simpler engineer- 
ing models, they all involve empirical correlation 
of input and output data. While essentially empiri- 
cal prediction techniques are useful, greater pro- 
gress in both penetrator and armor design will be 
made when reliable analytical prediction capabili- 
ties are available. This complex, interdisciplinary 
problem involves a variety of deformation and 
failure mechanisms in both the penetrator and the 
armor. A basic research program involving both 
mechanics and material sciences is needed in this 
area. 

Materials research. More than 65 percent of 
advanced weapons system failures are materials 
failures. To counter the penalties due to such fail- 
ures, the Army conducts a broad-based materials 
research program directed toward four generic 
weapon system areas: Aircraft, armament, armor, 
and missiles. The objective is to develop and 
characterize materials to provide weapon system 
cost reduction, improved performance and relia- 
bility, and reduced maintainability for new and 
improved weapon systems. Current weapon sys- 
tem deficiencies include need for improved armor 
for advanced ground combat vehicles, need for 
improved munitions to defeat advanced armor, 
need for high-strength, lightweight materials to 
reduce the costly accelerated wear of helicopter 
transmissions and gears, and the need for ad- 
vanced high temperature ceramics for Army gas 
turbine engines. The Army will apply increased 
resources and emphasis to these deficiences and 
will exploit technological opportunities for provid- 
ing cost effective, reliable, and maintainable weap- 
on systems for the modern field Army. 

Medical research. The loss of military manpow- 
er resulting from combat casualties, injuries, and 
disease has represented a large cost in both 
trained manpower and rehabilitation and treat- 
ment costs. Medical R&D programs are being 
conducted to reduce manpower and treatment 
costs through avoidance of environmental inju- 
ries, prophylaxis, and improved procedures for 
treatment of casualties. Particular emphasis will 
be given in these programs to combat surgical 
techniques, environmental injuries, performance 
and stress prophylaxis to protect troops against 
disease, and defense against biological and chemi- 
cal agents. 

Organizational effectiveness. A priority require- 
ment is the development of organizational effec- 
tiveness to improve quality and competence of 
officer and enlisted personnel and performance of 

68 DEFENSE 


Army organizations. A new research thrust is 
required to develop tools, methods, and tech- 
niques that will assist Department of the Army 
major commands and individual units in identify- 
ing, handling, and evaluating organization prob- 
lems and solutions. Examples include unit attri- 
tion, individual and unit mission readiness, indivi- 
dual and unit training requirements, developing 
job designs and redesigns to handle new tactics 
and weapon system installations and usage, logis- 
tical and maintenance systems, and the range of 
personnel, supervisory, and workload factors 
that degrade individual and unit performance. 

Ice adhesion. The adhesion of ice to surfaces, 
such as power lines, antennas, communication 
towers, ships, military ground equipment, helicop- 
ters, and pavements, still remains one of the big- 
gest, only partially solved, problems in cold re- 
gions research. The diflficulties concentrate largely 
in industrialized areas south of the advancing po- 
lar air masses. An icing storm can substantially 
affect missile defense systems or impede military 
operations in Europe. This consideration has 
prompted an intensified attack on basic research 
problems in this field, in cooperation with univers- 
ities. The surface chemistry of ice and substrate is 
being examined, including crystallographic defects 
and dielectric aspects. The potential of surface 
coatings and physical or chemical treatment is 
being examined. Climatological criteria leading to 
difficulties are being derived. Experiments on the 
icing of rotating elements have been conducted in 
a laboratory and under most difficult conditions in 
the field. Theoretical models are being developed 
that show the icing potential as a function of the 
relevant physical parameters involved. Work is 
needed to find the correct effect of windspeed. 

Although the Army has an extensive research 
program spanning almost the full spectrum of sci- 
ence and technology, and tries to support mean- 
ingful research in every area considered vital to 
its needs, there are a few important areas in 
which the Army has been directed not to have a 
research effort. For example, in the areas of drug 
abuse, venereal disease, and basic immunology, 
the Congress has enjoined the Army from con- 
ducting research. This is believed wrong, since drug 
abuse and venereal disease in military populations 
constitute unique problems in which further re- 
search is required, and basic immunology is a vi- 
tal building block in any program of research to- 
ward prevention of infectious disease. Renewed 
emphasis on non-goal-oriented basic immunology 
is necessary to ensure availability of required 
tools and expertise to solve scientific problems of 
importance to the Army. 


Organization and Management of 
Scientific Activities 

The management cycle for the Army's research 
and development program including requirements, 
program initiation, review, and evaluation is ac- 
complished on an annual basis. More specifically, 
the Army stafT annually prepares and distributes 
to Army laboratories a user-oriented document 
called the "Science and Technology Objectives 
Guide" (STOG). This guide provides the Army 
research and development community with clear 
and concise descriptions of the Army's concept 
for future military operations, the deficiencies or 
short-comings of current systems, and the equip- 
ment and manpower capabilities required to meet 
the Army's needs. The STOG lists, as concretely 
as possible and in priority ranking, the Army's 
science and technology objectives, the user pro- 
ponents for these objectives, and the laboratories 
responsible for coordinating the research and 
development. 

In response to STOG guidance, laboratory sci- 
entists and engineers propose science and technol- 
ogy programs. These are reviewed at the laborato- 
ry level by the laboratory technical director. Pro- 
posed laboratory programs are then submitted 
through channels for review at command/staff 
levels. Also, management summary sheets 
(MSS's) delineating work actually being per- 
formed in all laboratories are prepared to show 
the effort addressing each of the science and tech- 
nology objectives. The MSS's permit an across- 
the-board examination and evaluation of the sci- 
ence and technology base program in terms of 
requirements and program thrusts and emphases. 

In March and August of each year, the Re- 
search, Development and Acquisition Council 
(RDAC), composed of senior Army personnel, 
reviews the orientation of the science and tech- 
nology base program in terms of major thrusts 
and areas of emphasis. The RDAC considers the 
work being done to address pacing problems and 
the distribution of funds. The objective of this 
review is to identify critical issues and determine 
a science and technology base program. Army 
policy is to maintain an adequate in-house capa- 
bility so the Army will be a smart buyer, to en- 
courage and ensure investigation of new ideas and 
concepts that may contribute to the Army mis- 
sion, and to maintain effective contact between 
the Army and scientists of the United States and, 
when appropriate, other nations of the free world. 

Money is provided for support of research pro- 
posals submitted by scientists and engineers in 


other Government agencies, universities, industry, 
and nonprofit institutions. Each such proposal is 
evaluated by scientific peers for scientific quality 
and relevance to Army requirements. Current 
funding limitations permit supporting only the 
most outstanding proposals that also satisfy the 
relevance requirement. The Army research pro- 
gram is accomplished approximately one-half in- 
house and approximately one-half through re- 
search contracts and/or grants. Decisions in spe- 
cific cases depend on capabilities and availability 
of resources in terms of personnel, equipment, 
and facilities. 

Basic research efforts are initiated in two 
ways — scientists and engineers in Army laborato- 
ries and by scientists and engineers outside the 
Army organization. Although guidance is provided 
for the research program in general terms, respon- 
sibility for the content of the in-house basic re- 
search effort has been delegated to each technical 
director of an Army laboratory, and each is re- 
sponsible for the initiation and termination of ba- 
sic research tasks in the laboratory. The initiation 
of an external basic research effort depends on 
the evaluation of a proposal as to quality and re- 
levance, and the availability of funds. The sup- 
port of a contract or grant is normally for a speci- 
fied period of time such as three years. A contract 
or grant for basic research is seldom terminated 
before the specified time period has elapsed, un- 
less the principal investigator dies or for some 
other reason cannot complete the investigation. 
The renewal of a contract or grant (i.e., the sup- 
port of a new contract or grant with the same in- 
vestigator) depends on an evaluation of past per- 
formance and the pertinence of the new proposal 
at the time of its consideration. 

The Army is sensitive to the importance of pro- 
tecting research, and generally supports the sci- 
ence and technology base program including re- 
search on a level-of-effort basis. Current policy is 
to support the research program at approximately 
5 percent of the total research, development, test, 
and evaluation program, and to implement ap- 
proximately half of these funds through contracts 
and grants. So although a definite effort is made 
to establish an appropriate level for support of the 
research program and then "fence" these funds, 
it is not always successful. For example, during 
the Vietnamese effort the pressure of responding 
to urgent requirements and supporting U. S. 
troops in the field, combined with inflation, did 
erode the Army's basic research program. Current 
efforts and the current trend are to restore the 
support of basic research to the pre-Vietnamese 
level. 


DEFENSE 69 


DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 


The Mission of Naval Research 


Role of Basic Research 


The mission of the research program of the 
U. S. Navy is to plan, procure, and encourage scien- 
tific research because of its paramount importance 
to the development and maintenance of future 
naval power and the preservation of national se- 
curity. The principal focus of the resources of 
naval research is the Office of Naval Research 
(ONR) in accordance with the Act of Congress of 
August I, 1946, Title 10 U.S.C. 5150-5153 (origi- 
nally Public Law 588). The relevant language 
reads: 
The Office of Naval Research shall perform 
such duties as the Secretary of the Navy pre- 
scribes relating to: 

(1) The encouragement, promotion, planning, 
initiation, and coordination of naval re- 
search; 

(2) The conduct of naval research in augmenta- 
tion of and in conjunction with the research 
and development conducted by the bureaus 
and other agencies and offices of the De- 
partment of the Navy, . . . 

Accordingly, the charge to ONR is to exercise 
leadership in carrying out this mission and to 
provide within the Department of the Navy a sin- 
gle office, which by extramural contract and 
through its laboratories, shall be able to obtain or 
develop, coordinate, and make available to all ac- 
tivities of the Department of the Navy, worldwide 
scientific information and the necessary services 
for conducting the requisite specialized and ima- 
ginative naval research. 


Definition of Basic Research 

In the context of the ONR mission of naval 
research, we define research to include the scien- 
tific study and experimentation directed toward 
increasing knowledge and understanding in those 
fields of the physical, engineering, environmental, 
biological-medical, and behavioral-social sciences 
bearing on long-term national security needs. 
Such research provides fundamental knowledge 
for the solution of military problems; it also sup- 
plies part of the base for subsequent exploratory 
and advanced developments in defense-related 
technologies such as communications, detection, 
tracking, surveillance, propulsion, mobility, guid- 
ance and control, navigation, energy conversion, 
materials, structures, and personnel support. 

70 DEFENSE 


The management of the research program in the 
U. S. Navy has some unusual features compared 
to the programs in most Government agencies. 
After 1945, the usefulness of science and technol- 
ogy to the Navy was no longer in question. What 
remained to be determined was how best to ar- 
range for the introduction of new science and 
technology, as they evolved, into Navy practice 
and equipment. Congress, in establishing the 
Office of Naval Research, foresaw the value of a 
single, central office within the Navy that would 
coordinate Naval research as well as conduct it. 
implicit in this dual function was a staff made up 
of scientists who could absorb and appreciate 
advances at the frontiers of science while, at the 
same time, appreciating the technological needs of 
the present and future Navy. The staff of research 
managers has in fact been composed of members 
of the scientific and technological communities, as 
evidenced by their participation in professional 
societies, the number of professional publications 
they have produced, and the patents they hold. 
Experience over the past 30 years has shown the 
wisdom of this arrangement. The management 
style and practices developed by ONR have had a 
demonstrably favorable influence on advances in 
science and on naval technology. Several sorts of 
activity characterize the way the Navy's basic 
research managers carry out their jobs. 

Funding basic research in areas that have im- 
mediate and obvious bearing on naval operations 
needs no elaboration. Navy-sponsored research in 
oceanography, hydrodynamics, and acoustics are 
well-known and constitute clear examples of mis- 
sion-oriented scientific work of broad naval inter- 
est. 

Not much more difficult for the research man- 
ager to select for support is research in fields of 
great, but not dominant or exclusive. Navy inter- 
est. Examples of accomplishments in such fields 
are: 

• A program of research in the atmospheric 
sciences produced a method for the dissipa- 
tion of fog from airfields. 

• Research in metallurgy resulted in the devel- 
opment of refractory metals and alloys es- 
sential to the development of high-perform- 
ance military and civilian platforms. 

• Early ONR recognition and funding of the 
emerging fields of mathematical statistics and 
operations research ensured the important 
contribution of these disciplines to the con- 


struction of a theory of inventory control and 
to providing a scientific underpinning to lo- 
gistics decision-making. 

The point of these examples is that the Navy 
has recognized that its own interests as well as 
those of society at large depend in one degree or 
another on the health of basic science. The 
Navy's research managers are therefore alert to 
the emergence of new technologies and advances 
in science even when these are not immediately 
recognizable as having naval utility. Frequently 
enough, spinoff useful to the Navy emerged from 
such advances. How does the manager become 
aware of new developments? One principal route 
is through the thousands of unsolicited proposals 
which pour into ONR annually. These provide 
important clues regarding what the scientific and 
technological communities consider to be current- 
ly worth doing. They also provide clues about 
new and able scientists coming into the research 
arena. Some proposals will deal with matters on 
the front lines of science. Such research often 
provides the scientific capital on which technology 
will eventually draw. Dr. Harold Brown, then 
Director of Defense Research and Engineering 
(DDR&E), in a speech at MIT in 1965, said that his 
experience led him to believe that, in Defense mat- 
ters, the value of basic research as measured by its 
utilization could be determined in 10 years or less. 

The second principal route is through attention 
to forums for scientific exchange. These include 
the relevant literature, attendance at national and 
international meetings and workshops, and con- 
versations with scientists in thtir home laborato- 
ries or when they visit the Navy. In matters of 
current and pressing interest the research man- 
agers may mount their own symposia or work- 
shops to determine the state of the art and adjust 
their programs accordingly. Negative research 
results have, on occasion, proved useful in abort- 
ing expensive development projects by showing 
that, in principle, the development could not suc- 
ceed. Contributing to the gathering and dissemina- 
tion of information are the ONR Branch Office 
personnel at Boston, Chicago, and Pasadena. 
ONR offices in London and Tokyo provide win- 
dows to European and Oriental research. A first- 
rate science library maintained by ONR is availa- 
ble to all Navy research personnel. The Navy's 
program can be influenced also by the content of 
programs supported by other Government agen- 
cies whose missions may in part overlap with the 
Navy's; the Navy research manager therefore 
meets with scientists of other Government re- 
search agencies, both on an ad hoc basis, and on 
a regular schedule. 

One of the more difficult activities confronting 


the Navy's research manager is interesting the 
scientific community in pursuing research the 
manager had judged to be of value in the solution 
of certain problems. The manager may use semi- 
nars or other means of bringing together naval 
personnel and researchers. His objective is to 
make both communities conscious of mutual ben- 
efits that can result from the awareness by re- 
searchers in basic science of problems in the mili- 
tary world as well as the commercial technical 
community. There are many examples of Navy 
problems where the Navy's research managers 
were catalysts for the development of novel tech- 
nologies or drove existing research in fruitful new 
directions: 

• A requirement of the fleet ballistic program 
led to the design of a nitropolymer plasticiz- 
er — a major contributor to the development 
of a safe, high-energy, stable solid propel- 
lant. 

• Marine Corps specification of its requirement 
for locating enemy troops in dark and remote 
regions inspired basic electronics researchers 
to develop personnel sonar systems. 

• A long-term basic research effort in fluid lu- 
brication and gas bearings responded to 
Navy needs by producing the gyroscopes 
used in inertial navigation systems. These 
same gas bearings are now common in high- 
speed tape transports and in flying heads for 
computer disk memories. 

• The application of artificial intelligence tech- 
niques to Navy command and control prob- 
lems was pushed by the desire of fleet com- 
manders for active computer systems which 
could both alert them to the possibility of 
impending crisis situations and permit Eng- 
lish language man-machine dialogue in cir- 
cumstances pertinent to the forecasted criti- 
cal event. 

The Navy's research personnel become aware 
of Navy needs through various channels. Rou- 
tines have been established for collecting and 
absorbing documents such as mission statements, 
planning guides, etc. bearing on research require- 
ments. Attendance at workshops sponsored by 
the Chief of Naval Operations and the Chief of 
Naval Material, where matters of Navy needs are 
addressed, is beneficial. The research managers 
familiarize themselves with and interact closely 
with the Navy's operational communities. 

The optimum consequence of the Navy's basic 
research program is, as mentioned above, the in- 
troduction of new science or technology into the 
fleet. The second purpose, then, of the close in- 
teraction between research and operation person- 
nel is this function. It has required continuing and 
personal communication and dialogue between the 

DEFENSE 71 


two communities. While it has sometimes been 
difficult to establish the necessary feedback loops, 
there is a long history of the transfer of naval re- 
search to naval operations. Examples include the 
following: 

• Mathematical progress in developing optimal 
choices under conditions of budgetary and 
space constraints was picked up by the Po- 
laris program and followed through by re- 
search efforts to the point of creating a for- 
malism for the onboard spare parts loading of 
deployed Polaris submarines. 

• Pioneer ONR-supported research in the 
freezing and thawing of blood led to signifi- 
cant extensions in Storage capabilities for 
this vital material. These techniques made 
possible the use of frozen blood banks in 
Vietnam and eventually were utilized by civil- 
ian hospitals. 

• Computer time-sharing, an innovative con- 
cept initiated with Navy and the Defense 
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DAR- 
PA) resources created a worldwide revolu- 
tion in information-processing methodologies 
and represented the foundation stone for 
now-realized Navy and DOD interests in 
reducing costs and connecting geographically 
dispersed computational sites. 

Finally, contributing to the widest dissemination 
of the results of the Navy's research program has 
been the ONR policy of insisting on open publica- 
tion and wide distribution of reports by contrac- 
tors. A welcome, not often recognized, byproduct 
of the Navy's research program has been its con- 
tribution to a new generation of scientists; many 
of the top men in their respective fields today re- 
ceived Navy support during their graduate educa- 
tion and as fledgling independent investigators. 

In summary, the Navy research program, coor- 
dinated by ONR, clearly goes beyond the funding 
of research for the sake of research. In short, the 
program: 

• Supports basic research to meet future Navy 
needs. 

• Analyzes present deficiencies and future 
needs for translation into research goals. 

• Establishes a channel whereby useful re- 
search results may be introduced into naval 
operations. 

• Provides and maintains the necessary staff 
and administrative machinery to make the 
process work. 


Organization and Management of 
Scientific Activities 

The Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Research, 
Engineering, and Systems) is responsible for all 
matters related to research, development, test, 
and evaluation within the Department of the Navy 
and for oceanography, ocean engineering, and 
closely related matters. His office exercises con- 
trol on all research, development, test, and evalu- 
ation (RDT&E) funds budgeted to the Navy. The 
programs are administered by the Office of Naval 
Research, the Naval Material Systems Com- 
mands, the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, and 
the Marine Corps, and are carried out in Govern- 
ment installations or under contract or grants with 
private enterprise, universities, and other research 
institutions. 

The Office of Naval Research is charged with 
planning, initiating, and conducting a broad pro- 
gram of basic and applied research. In addition, it 
conducts research and exploratory development 
to augment similar work being done by other ele- 
ments of the Navy. 

The Systems Commands, which report to the 
Chief of Naval Material, are responsible for tech- 
nological development, engineering design, and 
production of ships, planes, weapons, electronics, 
logistics, and facilities systems. Special research 
and development projects are headed by project 
managers who report directly to the Chief of 
Naval Material and to the various Systems Com- 
manders. 

The responsibilities of the Bureau of Medicine 
and Surgery are aviation medicine, fleet health 
care, fleet occupational health care, human per- 
formance, dental research, submarine and diving 
medical research, and infectious diseases. 

The principal role of the Office of Naval Opera- 
tions in research and development is to advise the 
Navy Material Command of the Navy's future 
needs with regard to ships, aircraft, weapons sys- 
tems, and related support systems. This Office 
makes the final decision as to the ultimate produc- 
tion and use of equipment that has resulted from 
research and development programs. Reporting to 
the Chief of Naval Operations is the Oceanogra- 
pher of the Navy, who has the responsibility for 
coordinating matters of ocean science, ocean en- 
gineering, and ocean operations. 

The Commandant of the Marine Corps exer- 
cises responsibilities for determining and planning 
for the support needs of the Marine Corps and 
ensures the USMC RDT&E program is respon- 
sive to those needs. 


72 


Examples of Basic Research 

It is well known that the early history of ONR 
involved much support of basic research. Not 
only was there support of individual research pro- 
jects, entire fields were developed, such as radio 
astronomy and low temperature physics; tech- 
niques were evolved with far-reaching consequ- 
ences in research and technology, such as nuclear 
magnetic resonance for chemistry and defect 
theory in metallurgy; and instrumentation and fa- 
cilities were developed over many years for use in 
geophysical research. This Nation's postwar lead- 
ership in high-energy nuclear physics would have 
been impossible without the major efforts of 
ONR. 

This early activity provides a background for 
discussion of more recent accomplishments. In 
this inquiry, no attempt was made to cover all 
areas of Navy research. The Navy is not as ex- 
tensively involved in basic research as was once 
the case. The following examples should be con- 
sidered as selected, representative accomplish- 
ments. 

Geophysics. In some areas of geophysics, it is 
possible to state broadly that the Navy is still a 
strong participant in relatively basic aspects of 
research. Thus, ONR participated in, and contin- 
ued to support a significant part of the large-scale 
experiments in oceanography that have occurred 
recently and some of which are still going on: 
MCDE. POLYMODE, NORPAX, INDEX, AND 
MILE. In the Arctic, likewise, ONR participated 
in the preparatory phases, logistics, and part of 
the research support for the major AIDJEX ex- 
periment. The Vetlesen Prize in 1975 was awarded 
Dr. C. L. Pekeris for his work on the tides, sup- 
ported for many years by ONR. 

Astronomy. The Naval Research Laboratory 
(NRL) has remained active in the areas of ra- 
dioastronomy, x-ray and ultraviolet astronomy, 
and solar ultraviolet and x-ray astronomy, under 
H. Friedman and R. Tousey. Among the creden- 
tials attesting to the merit of this work can be cit- 
ed the award of the Medal of Science to Dr. 
Friedman and the continued participation by NRL 
in Skylab and in other space vehicles on a com- 
petitive basis. Recent papers from these efforts at 
NRL that have a significant number of recent cita- 
tions are: G. R. Carruthers, Astrophys. J. Vol. 
161 L, 1970, p. 81; Science, Vol. 177, 1972. p. 788; 
R. Tousey, Solar Phys., Vol. 33, 1973, p. 265; M. 
M. Shapiro, Ann. Rev. Nucl. Sci.. Vol. 20, 1970, 
p. 323. Also at NRL, the work of the Karles on 
molecular and crystal structure has received much 
recognition. I. L. Karle, J. Am. Chem. Soc Vol. 
92, p. 3755, 1970; J. Am. Chem. Soc, Vol. 94, p. 
81, 1972; Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., US, Vol. 70, p. 
1836; Biochemistry, Vol. 13, p. 2155, 1974. 


Physical science. In the physical science areas, 
Nobel Laureate Dr. C. H. Townes was also 
awarded the 1977 Earle K. Plyer Prize of the 
American Physical Society for his work using 
maser and laser techniques in molecular spectros- 
copy, notably those in interstellar space. ONR 
participated in the support of Dr. Townes' recent 
efforts to explore the millimeter and near infrared 
wavelengths using maser techniques as well as his 
earlier pre-Nobel Prize research. Drs. W. Kohn 
and N. Lang were awarded the 1977 Davisson- 
Germer Prize of the American Physical Society 
for their contributions to the understanding of the 
inhomogeneous interacting electron gas and of its 
application to electronic phenomena at sur- 
faces. This work was supported in part by ONR. 
ONR also participated in the atomic clock meas- 
urement by Dr. C. O. Alley of the general relativis- 
tic time differences produced by aircraft flights. 
The time difference between two interchangeable 
sets of macroscopic cesium atomic clocks was 
measured by direct comparison before and after 
one set was flown in a radar-tracked naval aircraft 
in five independent flights. Remote comparison 
was made using laser pulses. The results confirm 
Einstein's equivalence principle and constitute the 
first practical application of his theory of gravita- 
tion. 

Chemistry. The work on boranes for which W. 
N. Lipscomb was awarded the Nobel Prize in 
chemistry was supported in large part by ONR.' 

Fundamental research. Recent techniques of 
significance for fundamental research include: 
Two photon spectroscopy, Doppler-free, extended 
to the study of general atomic and molecular tran- 
sitions by use of a nitrogen-pumped dye laser. 
The narrow line width promises a more precise 
measurement of the Rydberg constant and also 
possibly an optical frequency standard.- 

Mathematics. In the mathematics area, the gen- 
esis of the field of sparse matrix analysis by graph 
theoretical characterization was the work of ONR 
contractors, S. Porter and later D. Ross. Another 
example of this type was the thesis of J. A. 
George on the finite element method. This work is 
considered to have set the proper questions for 
further work which has fundamentally changed 
the way many types of partial differential equa- 
tions are solved numerically. Still another exam- 
ple is the publication of the book by Y. S. Chow, 
H. Robbins, and D. Siegmund, "Great Expecta- 


I'The Boranes and Their Relatives," Les Prix Nobel. 1*^76. 

2-Hydrogen ls-2s Isotope Shift and Is Lamb Shift Measured 
by Laser Spectroscopy," S. A. Lee. R. Wallenstein. and T. W. 
Hansch, Phys. Rev. Letters. Vol, 35, p. 1262, 1975. Another 
technique originated under ONR sponsorship is that of phos- 
phorescence microwave double resonance, useful in research 
on transitions of triplet states in chemistry. 

DEFENSE 73 


tions: The Theory of Optimal Stopping," (Hough- 
ton-Mifflin, 1971), which helped establish a whole 
new class of statistical tests. 

Fundamental fluid mechanics. In fundamental 
fluid mechanics, supported by ONR, the work of 
A. Roshko on large-scale structure in turbulent 
flow is considered significant.' 

Biomedical. In the biomedical area, the work of 
Dr. J. Barchas on the role of brain catecholamines 
in regulation of response to stress won the A. E. 
Bennet Award of the Society of Biological Psy- 
chiatry and has provided analytical techniques for 
rapid replicate analyses in the course of behav- 
ioral experiments. In the area of body temperature 
regulatory mechanisms, ONR supported the re- 
search of Dr. R. Myers, which developed the 
Myers/Feldberg theory of thermoregulation and 
elucidated the role of the ratio of calcium to so- 
dium ions in control of the body's thermal set 
point. 4 

Current and Future Research 
Emphasis 

Although the results of research take many 
forms, specific categories can be delineated: 

• New tangible products, in the sense of new 
materials or new techniques answering tech- 
nokigical needs; for example, new rocket 
fuels. 

• Newly discovered phenomena extending sci- 
ence and providing technological opportuni- 
ties. Superconductivity is one example. 

• New understanding as expressed in the form 
of models and "thinking tools", e.g., con- 
cepts that provide significant new approaches 
in solving technological problems. 

The first two categories need no further discus- 
sion, but the last deals with a more subtle pheno- 
menon and often is the basis for successful transi- 
tion from laboratory bench to factory conveyor 
belt. An early example is the laboratory demon- 
stration of the need for high-vacuum technology 
and general cleanliness in producing the exotic 
refractory metals and alloys which are at the heart 
of many naval systems. A second example is the 
development of theories of crystal imperfections 
which helped physicists conceive and design a 


^One reference of a series is Garry L. Brown and A. Roshko. 
"On Density Effects and Large Structure in Turbulent Mixing 
Layers." J. Fluid Mech.Wol. 64. Part 4. p. 775, 1974. A related 
piece of work Is that of J. T. C. Liu and L. Merkine, reported 
in Proc. R. Soc. Land. A, Vol. 352, p. 21.1, 1976. 

^"An Integrative Model of Monoamine and Ionic Mechan- 
isms in the Hypothalamic Control of Body Temperature." 
Temperature Regulation and Drug Addiction. Editors: J. Lo- 
max. E. Schonbau. and J. Jacob (Karger, Basel, 1975). 

74 DEFENSE 


number of solid state devices and enabled materi- 
al scientists to understand and then exploit ob- 
served real materials properties as opposed to 
ideal properties. It is under this category that, in 
the long run, science makes major payoffs. New 
philosophies of development and application be- 
come evident, frequently involving new talent and 
new knowledge. (Textbooks and handbooks are 
important byproducts). Finally, tremendous impe- 
tus may be given to one or more branches of sci- 
ence — for example, the impact of cryogenics on 
physics, chemistry, and biology. 

When selecting areas for pursuit of naval re- 
search, the manager has options over a broad 
spectrum of criteria. At one end of this spectrum 
is support of research at the frontiers of science, 
whose coupling to application is likely to occur in 
the future. At the other end is the research which 
satisfies an immediate need perceived by the de- 
velopment and/or operational communities but 
which is less likely to be at the leading edge of 
science. The programs sponsored by ONR usually 
fall in areas nearer the frontiers of science with 
the longer term payoff, while those programs 
managed by the Systems Command and other 
organizations within the Navy Material Command 
are usually more closely coupled to direct require- 
ments. Below are presented some selected areas 
of research that are important from one or both of 
the above viewpoints. It should be borne in mind 
that not all disciplines share equally in the range 
of options at both ends of the research spectrum. 

Oceanography 

The primary thrust in oceanography is to de- 
scribe the dynamic water motions in the upper 
ocean, defining their time and space scales so they 
may be modeled and predicted for antisubmarine 
warfare (ASW) purposes. To do this, the physical 
processes must be understood, including their 
forcing functions, their dissipation phenomena, 
and their nonlinear interrelations. Under study are 
such processes as microstructure, intrusions and 
internal waves on the thermocline, oceanic fronts 
between differing water masses, energetic western 
boundary currents and their degradation via 
meander-type processes to rings and mesoscale 
eddies. Pacific sea surface temperature anomalies 
1,(X)0 km in diameter that influence all the North- 
ern Hemisphere's climatology, and the control of 
the surface mixed layer by the flux of heat and 
momentum across the sea surface, particularly for 
high-wind regimes. Acoustic transmission studies 
are carried out simultaneously with extensive en- 
vironmental measurements of these phenomena to 
accelerate transition of new understanding of 
them to the design and improved performance of 
ASW systems of the Navy. These studies will 


determine the limitations on the size of acoustic 
arrays, the signal processing time for acoustic 
surveillance systems, and the ocean environmen- 
tal data required for accurate acoustic predictions. 
Other priority areas in the oceanography pro- 
gram are: 

• Ground truth verification for satellite remote 
sensors that can be used to infer ocean con- 
ditions below the surface, including infrared 
and microwave sea surface temperature sen- 
sors, precision altimeters for ocean currents, 
tides and geoidal heights, scatterometer for 
wave height, synthetic aperture radar for 
directional wave spectra. 

• Development of improved control methods 
for biological fouling and boring growths that 
will be compatible with tightening EPA regu- 
lations. The emphasis here must be on repel- 
lants rather than on today's toxins, such as 
creosote or organotins. Development of new 
methods to reduce corrosion by understand- 
ing seawater chemistry and the formation of 
biological slimes that are a precursor to cor- 
rosion in seawater. Corrosion and biodete- 
rioration presently are a $200-million-a-year 
problem to the Navy for pier/piling repairs, 
added fuel, and dry docking costs. 

• Development of the technology for quantita- 
tive understanding of low-frequency acoustic 
propagation in the sea floor, including the use 
of deep sound sources and ocean bottom 
seismographs. 

• Continuation of refinements of the proce- 
dures for analysis of trace .organics and inor- 
ganics in seawater for possible nonacoustic 
ASW purposes. 

• Development of improved prediction methods 
for locating sea floor areas where the bathy- 
metry, gravity, or magnetic field must be sur- 
veyed in greater detail. Effective geophysical 
prediction methods will minimize ship time 
required for ocean surveys. 

Arctic Program 

The objectives of ONR's Arctic program are: 

(1) To gain an improved understanding of environ- 
mental conditions in the Arctic and of environ- 
mental factors that affect Arctic naval operations, 

(2) to develop new and improved observational 
techniques for measuring environmental condi- 
tions in this area, and (3) to develop improved 
capabilities for predicting those environmental 
conditions that have a strong effect on Arctic 
naval operations. The environmental factors of 
interest include physical and biological oceano- 
graphic conditions under the Arctic ice cap, the 
acoustic transmission characteristics of these wa- 


ter masses, the ambient noise conditions related 
to the Arctic ice cap, the dynamic relations be- 
tween Arctic ice and the overlying atmospheric 
forces and the underlying ocean forces, atmos- 
pheric factors related to weather forecasting and 
long-range climate predictions. A number of spe- 
cific field projects are underway or planned for 
1977-83 to achieve the above objectives. These in- 
clude ambient noise model development and field 
experiments being conducted in the Chukchi Sea 
and the Beaufort Sea from the Naval Arctic Re- 
search Laboratory; Arctic acoustic studies con- 
ducted jointly at sea from Alert, Ellesmere Island, 
and Nord, Greenland, in concert with the Canadi- 
ans and the Danes; establishment of Manned- 
Unmanned Environmental Research Stations 
(MUMMERS) in various parts of the Arctic, used 
for a variety of environmental measurements; ini- 
tiation of the Nansen Drift Station across the Eur- 
asian Basin over the mid-Arctic ridge to be con- 
ducted in concert with all circumpolar nations; and 
East Greenland Drift Stream (a multinational in- 
vestigation of the dynamic land-air-sea-ice pro- 
cesses) within the southerly flowing East Green- 
land drift stream. ONR participation in most of 
these projects would include among other things 
acoustics, remote sensing of sea ice, airborne and 
sea floor geophysics, atmospheric physics related 
to improved weather forecasts, and ionospheric 
research related to long-range communications. 

Coastal Geography 

The objective of this program is to achieve a 
basic understanding of the coastal shallow water 
environment; an understanding of the terrestrial, 
oceanic, and atmospheric forces which influence 
this environment has, as a goal, the ability to 
predict coastal phenomena that affect amphibious 
and riverine operations. 

An example of current research in this area is 
the study of beach and surf zone processes by 
investigating wave-breaking mechanisms, long- 
shore currents, nearshore sediment transport, and 
beach and bottom dynamics. Development of 
nearshore dynamic models is an important part of 
the program. 

Another current long-range Navy project con- 
cerns the design of a computer-based environmen- 
tal information inventory system for the world's 
coastal regions. When completed, this system will 
contain information about data sources, environ- 
mental characteristics, and prediction models for 
the world's coastal regions. The development of 
various coastal prediction models has been part of 
this project. The long-range plan is to develop 
master coastal environmental prediction models 
for world coastal regions, capable of a high de- 


DEFENSE 75 


gree of accuracy in predicting complex changes in 
coastal conditions worldwide for tactical/opera- 
tional use. 

Atmospheric Sciences 

The communication problem grows more com- 
plex as communication traffic increases and diver- 
sifies in response to new equipment and vehicles 
put into service in the air and on the surface. The 
ionosphere, a prime regulator of communication 
conditions, is a dynamic and rapidly fluctuating 
part of the earth's environment upon which most 
Navy long-distance communications depend. Both 
natural and manmade ionospheric disturbances 
are of critical importance to electromagnetic wave 
propagation. Atmospheric physics has further- 
more been of prime interest because of its impor- 
tance in weather forecasting. 

Accordingly, this research involves the entire 
atmosphere affecting naval systems and opera- 
tions, from the marine boundary layer next to the 
ocean surface to the ionosphere, and its influence 
on naval communications. The effort is divided 
into these areas: The lower atmosphere and ma- 
rine boundary layer concerned with marine fog and 
aerosol distributions and efl"ects on optical and 
electromagnetic transmission; midatmosphere 
cloud physics, upper atmosphere, and strato- 
sphere for the estimation of impact on military 
operations and the design of high-altitude aero- 
stats for operational uses; and ionospheric plasma 
dynamics and solar control of the ionosphere and 
atmosphere for improved prediction of conditions 
afi'ecting naval communications, navigation, and 
surveillance systems. Research is being done on 
measurement techniques and instrumentation, par- 
ticularly on remote sensing. 

Astronomy and Astrophysics 

Scientific investigations are made of earth-space 
environments to determine characteristics of natu- 
ral backgrounds, efl'ects of energetic radiations on 
space systems and personnel, and characteristics 
of manmade disturbances. Data and technology 
are provided for planning and assessment of im- 
proved systems for surveillance, communication, 
detection, precise time determination and trans- 
fer, missile guidance, and navigation. The re- 
search efi'ort can be categorized into: 
Extraterrestrial radio background limits to military 
systems; far ultraviolet and x-ray background; 
solar phenomena affecting the earth's ionosphere 
and satellite environment; near earth energetic 
particle flux of cosmic rays and effects on sensi- 
tive systems; characteristics of manmade disturb- 
ances; and supporting instrumentation and vehicle 
technology. 

76 DEFENSE 


Mathematical Sciences 

Research is encouraged in many fields of math- 
ematics and computer science related to Navy 
missions. Current research in artificial intelligence 
seeks to determine how computers can learn and 
comprehend facts and relationships with the long- 
range goal of developing humanlike capabilities of 
adaptation and inference-making. 

Fundamental statistical research directed to- 
ward analyzing, evaluating, and discriminating 
stochastic signals related to radar, sonar, and oth- 
er communications media is underway. Improved 
system performance will be possible through the 
development of generalized probability models, 
better filtering algorithms, and better robust esti- 
mation procedures. More sophisticated models are 
needed to evaluate the environment as well as the 
stochastic signals generated from that environ- 
ment. 

The ONR plans to establish an acoustics insti- 
tute in theoretical (mathematical) acoustics which 
will be closely coupled with experimental and 
empirical acoustics activity. Work will include 
methods for calculating wave propagation in a 
random medium, construction of models of ocean 
bottom, and general numerical computational 
techniques appropriate for acoustics problems. 
The results will have direct application to the de- 
sign of underwater detection and communication 
systems and in the design of quieter ships and 
submarines. Related research in complex com- 
mand, control, and communications systems will 
also have direct application to these fundamental 
Navy missions. 

Computational Fluid Dynamics 

Computational fluid dynamics is concerned with 
solving numerically the equations of fluid motion 
so that useful methodology for the design and op- 
timization of naval ships, aircraft, and weapons 
can be developed. 

Initially, aerodynamic and hydrodynamic flows 
were emphasized, neglecting the effects of viscos- 
ity. Examples include the computation of super- 
sonic flow fields about bodies, a methodology lat- 
er utilized in both aircraft and re-entry vehicle 
design studies. Hydrodynamic computations have 
concentrated on air-sea interface problems, such 
as hydrofoil performance characteristics. 
Numerical methods for flows, including the ef- 
fects of viscosity, are still rather primitive and are 
restricted to highly idealized fundamental prob- 
lems. 

Problems of transonic flows, viscous flows, un- 
steady flows, turbulent flows, and ship wave re- 
sistance and ship motion in a seaway will be em- 
phasized in the future. Also included will be a 


study of the feasibility of developing special pur- 
pose computers to reduce drastically the cost of 
calculating viscous flows. 

Physics 

Physics as a frontier discipline and, in recent 
decades, as an applied discipline has so permeat- 
ed military and civilan technology, that all its 
manifestations could not be catalogued. The ex- 
amples given below of current research in the 
Navy represent a small sample of the diversity of 
the Navy's physics program. 

The potential for lasers to contribute signifi- 
cantly to antishipping-missile defense and to un- 
derwater surveillance and communications moti- 
vates current efforts in laser physics. Research on 
the basic aspects of plasmas, ions, atoms, mole- 
cules, and crystals is providing the basis for ad- 
vances in high-energy lasers and for blue/green las- 
ers. This research is also leading to the develop- 
ment and use of lasers for controlled and highly 
selective production of excited states, a technolo- 
gy with far-reaching economic and military impli- 
cations. 

Research in the area of relativistic electron 
beams — their generation, their interactions with 
electromagnetic fields and consequent radiation — 
offers the potential for generating very high-pow- 
er, very high-frequency microwave and millimeter 
wave energy which may in turn provide revolu- 
tionary improvements in surveillance and elec- 
tronic countermeasure systems. This work is part 
of a general thrust for more effective use of the 
electromagnetic spectrum. 

Superconductive electronics research currently 
in progress offers promising advantages for future 
naval communications, surveillance, computer, 
and electronic warfare systems. The advantages 
are extremely high speed, large band-width, high 
sensitivity, low noise, and low device power and 
loss. A specific example would be analog-to-digi- 
tal conversion at sampling rates of I to 10 Ghz. 

Chemistry 

The Navy's chemistry program provides re- 
search to the Navy and the Marine Corps on as- 
pects of chemical materials and the electrochemi- 
cal production and storage of energy. Per- 
formance criteria for naval chemical materials 
frequently exceed the capacities of existing ma- 
terials. New materials must therefore be synthe- 
sized and characterization techniques must be 
developed to predict their performance in a variety 
of demanding environments such as low (Arctic) as 
well as high temperatures, high pressure, intense 
electromagnetic radiation, and highly corrosive 
chemical environments. The Navy's chemical ma- 


terials research explores the synthesis of new, 
high-performance, polymeric materials and espe- 
cially "inorganic" polymers which contain noncar- 
bon backbones and thus offer new classes of ma- 
terials totally different from typical carbon-back- 
bone, commercial polymers. Supporting work for 
this polymer research is also sponsored and in- 
cludes the development of characterization tech- 
niques, such as torsional braid analysis and the 
synthesis of polymer precursors, such as boron 
compounds. As already mentioned, the ONR- 
sponsored research on the synthesis of boron hy- 
drides received attention when Professor William 
Lipscomb received the 1976 Nobel Prize in chem- 
istry for his contributions to the field. Future direc- 
tions in the chemical materials area include re- 
search on electroactive polymers. It is hoped that 
this research will lead to nontraditional uses of 
polymers as piezoelectrics, pyroelectrics, and even 
conducting materials. 

In order to provide a technology base for the 
development of new batteries for propulsion, 
communications, and other Navy and Marine 
Corps needs. ONR sponsors research in electro- 
chemistry related to electrode processes and 
phenomena associated with high energy density 
electrochemical systems. These include electrode 
passivation, dendritic growth of material on elec- 
trodes, and the chemistry of nonaqueous electro- 
lyte solutions. A recent product of this research 
was a new lithium-thionyl chloride battery system 
with very high density, which is currently under 
development by the Navy and Air Force for a 
variety of military uses. This program has special 
significance because basic electrochemistry re- 
search, especially theoretical electrochemistry, is 
not well supported in the United States. 

In support of these broad areas and other gen- 
eral requirements, ONR sponsors chemical re- 
search in analysis of the composition and struc- 
ture of chemical materials and their reaction ki- 
netics and energetics. Special attention is devoted 
to solids and liquids and their surfaces with an 
awareness of application areas such as lubrica- 
tion, corrosion, photo-degradation, chemical light 
sources, and catalytic processes. 


IVIaterials 

Almost all developing technologies are paced by 
materials capabilities. Hence, an important part 
of the naval research program is directed toward 
advancing materials technologies. Research is 
done on metals and alloys, ceramics and inorganic 
solids, special performance materials, processing 
of new materials, and deterioration in (and protec- 
tion from) severe operating environments. 


DEFENSE 77 


The Navy has played a key role in the develop- 
ment of new metals and alloys. Research contin- 
ues on titanium, including effort to improve work- 
ability by rare earth additions and the analysis of 
fatigue behavior in beta titanium alloys. Work is 
also being done on laser welding of high-strength 
steel, titanium, and aluminum alloys and laser 
surface treatment of metal alloys. 

The Navy is currently expanding its research 
program on amorphous metals, a new class of 
materials prepared by very rapid cooling from the 
vapor or liquid state. The recent availability of 
amorphous alloy filaments from commercial 
sources and the discovery of the amorphous state 
in sputtered metals have created great interest in 
their potential, but research is needed to explore 
the mechanical and magnetic properties of these 
materials. 

The Navy has had great success in bringing ba- 
sic research to bear on technological problems 
associated with ceramic materials. Emphasis is 
being given carbon-carbon composites in an at- 
tempt to improve the structural reliability of rock- 
et nozzles. Other work deals with: (I) Impact re- 
sponse and erosion mechanisms for missile domes 
and re-entry materials; (2) sonar ceramics involv- 
ing processing, reliability, and dielectric stability, 
and (3) response of optical materials to high-in- 
tensity laser light. 

Electronics 

Future Navy advanced electronic systems re- 
quire new and improved devices and materials for 
significantly increased system reliability and per- 
formance. Navy-funded research and develop- 
ment complements the existing broad programs 
supported by U. S. industry. The fields of micro- 
wave and millimeter wave electromagnetic tech- 
nology, optical/I R imaging with solid-state focal 
plane arrays, extremely dense and fast signal pro- 
cessing technologies, the hardening of electronic 
devices against hostile physical environments, and 
the search for new semiconductors operating at 
higher speeds in unexploited portions of the elec- 
tromagnetic spectrum are all high-priority re- 
search areas. 

The natural environment in which future Navy 
electronic systems will operate is being actively 
studied. Research on electromagnetic propagation 
and radiation through the atmosphere and iono- 
sphere with emphasis on investigation of long- 
range forecasts of solar and magnetospheric dis- 
turbances of prime communication links is receiv- 
ing priority. 

As electronic systems have become more so- 
phisticated, they have been difficult to test primar- 
ily due to the lack of a uniform scientific base in 


this area. Modern system theory is now capable 
of yielding the desired route to a general theoreti- 
cal formulation for fault analysis, detection, and 
prediction. Consequently, these latter areas are 
receiving increased support and emphasis, al- 
though they are still underfunded. 

Power 

The Navy power program is acquiring the sci- 
entific knowledge needed to exploit new and im- 
proved power and propulsion systems for all na- 
val applications, including ship and aircraft pro- 
pulsion, rocket and missile propulsion, and ener- 
getic explosives for weapons. 

Propulsion research emphasizes performance by 
reducing weight and volume and by improving 
efficiency without sacrificing reliability. For ship 
propulsion, the segmented magnet homopolar 
motor/generator offers potential for all these char- 
acteristics at reduced costs. For future naval pro- 
pulsion systems, the closed-cycle Brayton tur- 
bomachine and liquid metal magnetohydro- 
dynamic systems offer further potential improve- 
ment. 

Research on energetic materials and their sensi- 
tivity is addressing future Navy needs for naval 
munitions and missiles that are very energy dense 
while maintaining an acceptably low and estima- 
ble risk of accidental detonation. 


Biomedical 

A major research emphasis in the biomedical 
program deals with the problem encountered by 
Navy and Marine Corps personnel living and 
working in stressful environments. High pressure 
and cold effects associated with the underwater 
environments are studied with the objective of 
extending diver performance in military underwa- 
ter salvage and coastal shelf resources defense. 
The problem related to deep diving known as the 
"high pressure neurological syndrome" receives 
special attention. The syndrome involves a series 
of symptoms that start with tremors and can de- 
velop into convulsions and death depending on 
the pressure conditions. No satisfactory explana- 
tion for this sequence of events has been con- 
firmed scientifically, although most investigators 
in the field are convinced that the effects are relat- 
ed to the behavior of excitable membranes under 
pressure. 

The effects of electromagnetic fields due to 
communications equipment and radar are being 
thoroughly investigated to prevent the restriction 
of use of naval electronic equipment and at the 
same time ensure human safety and environmen- 
tal acceptability. 


78 


DEFENSE 


Research is being done to determine quantita- 
tively the effects of ship motion and impact on 
crew performance. This work is motivated by an 
attempt to extend crew performance on advanced 
ship platforms, particularly the high-speed sur- 
face-effects ships. 

Behavioral Sciences 

Those in a position to make comparisons have 
characterized American military equipment as 
significantly better, from the human engineering 
point of view, than that of other nations. This was 
due largely to a sustained eflFort by ONR that led 
to human performance guidelines for design of 
systems. The current research program involves a 
variety of efforts that will produce information 
and tested techniques for minimizing manpower 
costs and reducing waste. These efforts range 
from new and improved forecasting models for 


estimating the future availability of military man- 
power with greater precision than now possible to 
new bases for estimating the likelihood that a giv- 
en individual will stay in the Navy and be suc- 
cessful if he is recruited. The program also in- 
cludes innovative approaches to personnel testing 
and training and continues to make contributions 
to the improved design of equipment through the 
application of human engineering principles. 

A significant recent contribution is the develop- 
ment of a new model of psychological testing 
which relates the characteristic measure by the 
test — a so-called latent trait — to the probability of 
particular responses to each item in the test. This 
model is in contrast to current methods which are 
based on models of the total score on a test. The 
new theory makes available new tools for creating 
banks of test items, for constructing parallel tests, 
and foi conducting computerized adaptive testing. 


DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE 


Introduction 

The Air Force research program is a vital part 
of the technology base of the Air Force, the De- 
partment of Defense (DOD), and the country. 
Management actions assure a research program 
that is scientifically sound, relevant to Air Force 
needs, and coordinated with other DOD and Fed- 
eral research efforts. The Air Force research 
program is managed by the Air Force Office of 
Scientific Research (AFOSR), an organization 
under the Air Force Systems Command. 

Definition of Research 

Research refers to scientific study and experi- 
mentation directed toward increasing knowledge 
and understanding in those fields directly related 
to explicitly stated long-term national security 
needs. 

Role of Research 

Research provides fundamental knowledge for 
the solution of identified military problems. It also 
provides part of the base for subsequent explora- 
tory and advanced developments in Defense-re- 
lated technologies and of new or improved mili- 
tary functional capabilities in such areas as com- 
munications, detection, tracking, surveillance, 
propulsion, mobility, guidance and control, naviga- 
tion, energy conversion, materials and structures, 
and personnel support. 

The Air Force research program is a continuing 
program to obtain an understanding of fundamen- 
tal scientific phenomena required to: (I) Solve the 


technical problems associated with the develop- 
ment and maintenance of a qualitatively superior 
Air Force, and (2) develop new knowledge in 
fields that can lead to higher performance, lower 
cost, and greater reliability of Air Force weapons 
systems. The program maintains in-house scientif- 
ic expertise for immediate availability when need- 
ed by the Air Force. The program also provides 
funding for the operation of the AFOSR contract 
research program and for reimbursement by 
AFOSR to all Air Force laboratories for their re- 
search programs. 

Basic Research Policy 

Air Force basic research policy, based on a 
1974 memorandum from the Secretary of the Air 
Force, is: 

• Research is a fundamentally important part 
of the overall Air Force research and devel- 
opment program: the preservation of the 
quality of that program is of utmost impor- 
tance. 

• Research funding should be protected from 
undue competition from development and 
production programs. 

• The primary emphasis of Air Force research 
should be presentation and enhancement of 
extramural capability to provide insight into 
the basic science. A secondary goal is to see 
that students are trained in those scientific 
disciplines critical to the Air Force. 

• The disciplines and programs supported by 
Air Force research should in general be those 
of greatest future interest to the Air Force. 

DEFENSE 79 


• The Air Force research program, while re- 
taining its integrity and independence, should 
be knowledgeable of and cooperate with the 
research programs of the other DOD and 
governmental agencies. 

Comparative Analysis and Historical Trends 

Prior to 1975, Air Force basic research was 
concentrated mainly in four organizations: the Air 
Force Cambridge Research Laboratories 
(AFCRL), the Aerospace Research Laboratory 
(ARL), the AFOSR, and the small Frank J. Seiler 
Research Laboratory (FJSRL) located at the Air 
Force Academy. AFCRL worked mainly in envi- 
ronmental and electronic sciences; ARL concen- 
trated on mechanics, chemistry, and solid state 
sciences; and AFOSR managed most of the Air 
Force extramural research program. 

On January 1, 1975, AFOSR became the single 
manager of Air Force basic research. On June 30, 
1975, ARL was abolished. In January 1976, 
AFCRL was abolished. The electronics laborato- 
ries came under the operational control of the 
Rome Air Development Center. The environmen- 
tal laboratories were organized as the Air Force 
Geophysics Laboratory and reoriented toward 
primarily exploratory development (National Sci- 
ence Foundation [NSF] "applied research"). As 
part of the realignment of the Air Force research 
program, the remaining Air Force laboratories, 
most of which until this time had no basic re- 
search responsibility, were required to initiate 
small research programs. This laboratory readjust- 
ment became effective in fiscal year 1977. 

The Air Force laboratories devote approximate- 
ly 7 percent of their manpower to basic research. 
Of the total Air Force research budget, approxi- 
mately 30 percent is devoted to in-house research 
in 11 laboratories. The remaining 70 percent is 
spent on extramural research, with the majority 
of these funds managed directly by AFOSR. 

One of the reasons for the realignment of the 
Air Force research program was to reverse the 
trend of increasing in-house work and decreasing 
extramural research. The Air Force research 
budget over a 12-year period is shown below: 


FY 


Inhouse 


Extramural 

($ Million) 


Total 


66 


$26.4 (31%) 


$58.1 


$84.5 


67 


29.5 (33%) 


59.0 


88.5 


68 


34.4 (40%) 


52.6 


87.0 


69 


34.6 (38%) 


56.2 


90.8 


70 


36.6 (45%) 


44.4 


81.0 


71 


39.7 (50%) 


40.5 


80.2 


80 


DEFENSE 


FY 


In-house 


Extramural 


Total 


($ Million) 


72 


40.8 (50%) 


41.0 


81.8 


73 


38.9 (52%) 


35.8 


74.7 


74 


41.4 (57%) 


31.1 


72.5 


75 


40.8 (55%) 


33.4 


74.2 


76 


41.5 (53%) 


36.2 


77.7 


77 


23.4 (30%) 


54.8 


78.2 


Basic Research in Agency Laboratories and 
in Federal Research Centers 

Air Force agencies conducting or managing re- 
search, their main areas of interest, and their 
funding in FY 1977 are shown in Table I. The Air 
Force research program spends very little money 
in the Federal Contract Research Centers 
(FCRC's). The cooperation and interchange be- 
tween the Air Force research community and the 
FCRC's are good, as is information exchange, but 
the funding and management structure of the 
FCRC/Air Force relationship allows little expendi- 
ture of research funds by the FCRC. 

Agency Support of Basic Research in Industry 

Approximately 8 to 10 percent of the Air Force 
research budget is contracted to industrial con- 
cerns. Actual amounts vary with industry interest 
in the Air Force program and Air Force interest in 
the expertise available. 

Agency Support of Basic Research in 
Universities 

University-funded research sponsored by the 
Air Force declined from $42 million in FY 1969 to 
$25 million in FY 1975. This trend is now being 
reversed. In FY 1975, approximately 55 percent 
of Air Force research was conducted in Air Force 
laboratories. In FY 1977 and for the future, only 
30 percent of Air Force research will be conduct- 
ed in-house. Approximately 10 percent will be 
conducted in industrial establishments, and 50 
percent in colleges and universities. Most Air 
Force research contracts and grants are managed 
directly by AFOSR, but Air Force laboratories 
are encouraged to increase their participation in 
research with the academic community. 

University-Air Force personnel interaction pro- 
grams already developed will continue in their 
present mode: 

• The major program in which university pro- 
fessors work in Air Force laboratories for 10 
weeks during the summer will be maintained 
at about 55 people. There will be a one-year 
follow-on minigrant of $10,0(K), available for 


Table 1. Air Force agencies, research interests and funding, FY 1977. 

Agency Interests FY 77 Funds 

Air Force Office of Scientific Research Electronics and Solid State Sciences, Physics, Mathematics. $45.1 

Chemistry, Aerospace Sciences, Life Sciences 

Air Force Armament Laboratory Mathematics, Mechanics, Energy Conversion 1.4 

Rome Air Development Center Electronics, Physics, Mathematics, Materials 5.8 

Air Force Geophysics Laboratory Environmental Sciences, Chemistry 9.2 

Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory Chemistry, Mechanics, Energy Conversion .8 

Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory Mathematics, Mechanics 2.7 

Air Force Materials Laboratory Chemistry, Materials, Mechanics 4.0 

Air Force Avionics Laboratory Mathematics, Electronics, Materials 1.9 

Air Force Aero Propulsion Laboratory Physics, Chemistry, Mechanics, 

Energy Conversion 3.1 

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory Human Resources 1.2 

Aerospace Medical Division Life Sciences 1.4 

Air Force Weapons Laboratory Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Mechanics, Terrestrial 

Sciences, Astronomy, and Astrophysics 1.5 

TOTAL $78.1 
about one-half of these visiting professors, if Table 2. Distribution of Air Force research furjds, FY 1966 and 

they apply and have acceptable proposals. ^^ ^^n. 

• One summer design program per year is ~^y^6 fy 1977 
planned. This consists of a group of 10 to 15 ($Muiion) (SMUiion) 

university faculty members who meet for the _ 

summer to address a particular Air Force General $17.3 $8.2 

problem. Nuclear physics 3.4 - 

• A limited number of faculty members who MaXmatics ::;::::;:;;;::.": 6:° ^9 

are experts in a particular area of Air Force Electronics 8.5 8.4 

need will be hired for one-year periods to Materials 2.5 12.4 

conduct research utilizing Air Force laborato- Mechanics 9.6 1 1.7 

ry equipment and facilities. ^""^9^ conversion 7.6 5.6 

^ ^ ' Terrestrial sciences 1.3 1.0 

Agency Support of Basic Research by Fields ^^^rrandroWsics- V:. 'II II 

of Science Biological and medical sciences . . 2.2 3.3 

T-. ^ 1- ^ ■, ,- r » • r- Human resources 2.5 2.8 

1 he approximate distributions of Air Force re- 

search funds for fiscal 1966 and 1977 by field of ministration (ERDA) and NSF is monitored for 

science are shown in Table 2. contributions to the program. AFOSR manages an 

Examples of Basic Research extensive research effort in the academic commu- 
nity. 

Because of limited resources, the Air Force Current areas of interest include chemical las- 
research program is not able to address every ers, gas dynamic lasers, and electric discharge 
identified problem. The examples below are some lasers; pointing and tracking; optical components; 
areas on which the program focuses. propagation; and laser effects. Future work will 

High energy laser research. The Air Force pro- include electron interaction with excited molecu- 

vides a substantial amount of basic research sup- lar states; boundary layer effects and mode-media 

port to the high energy laser program. Four Air interactions; supersonic, chemically reacting, and 

Force laboratories, the Army, the Navy, and oth- radiating flows; and optical materials. 

er DOD agencies contribute. Research conducted Engine materials research. The Air Force re- 

by the Energy Research and Development Ad- search program on metallurgy of structural ma- 

DEFENSE 81 


terials devotes a large portion of its effort toward 
engine materials. The emphasis of this research is 
on high-temperature materials and phenomena. 
Air Force laboratories perform research in-house, 
and AFOSR directs and manages contracts and 
grants with universities and industry. 

The Air Force research program on engine ma- 
terials is proceeding on a three-pronged approach 
toward : 

• A rational fundamental basis for develop- 
ment of new alloys 

• Improvement of existing materials through 
improved processing 

• Understanding and control of design-limiting 
phenomena. 

This program coordinates investigations at 
Government laboratories, industrial laboratories, 
universities, and research institutes. The result is 
expected to be lower cost, higher performance 
aerospace engines in the future. 

Rocket motor combustion instability. Air Force 
research on solid propellant rocket motors con- 
centrates on solving problems in three areas: Ob- 
taining stable smokeless fuels, accurately predict- 
ing and controlling the burn rate, and producing 
safely handled fuels. Air Force in-house and con- 
tracted research is coordinated with several Navy 
agencies and the National Aeronautics and Space 
Administration (NASA). 

Specific problems being addressed include: 
Behavior of aluminum during combustion, pro- 
viding accurate tools for predicting motor instabili- 
ties, mechanisms of deflagration-to-detonation 
transitions (DDT), and stability modeling. Sever- 
al recent accomplishments in the research com- 
munity have been passed to service laboratories 
and industry for further development. When DDT 
and smoke problems are largely resolved, the 
program emphasis will shift to higher energy pro- 
pellants. 

Flight simulation training. The Air Force has a 
significant investment in flight simulation training 
programs. The effectiveness of flight simulation in 
terms of transfer of training to airborne situa- 
tions, however, remains to be explored. Such ex- 
ploration is necessary to realize the goals of sub- 
stantial reduction in flying hours, aircraft fuel 
usage, and flight maintenance and support costs, 
as well as increased safety and equivalent, if not 
improved, flying proficiency. 

Ultrahigh power microwave generation with rela- 
tivistic electron beams. This Air Force research 
program is examining problems in beam-plasma 
interactions, collective ion acceleration, micro- 
wave production, and pulsed power technology. 
Anticipated payoffs are in the areas of radar, elec- 
tromagnetic warfare, and communication. The 
program has produced microwave power levels 

82 DEFENSE 


over 10*^ watts, the highest power levels to date. 
The goals of the program are to produce sources 
with high efficiency, power, and repetition rates; 
and tunability over a given frequency range, and 
at shorter wave lengths. Plans include investiga- 
tions into mode locking to produce picosecond 
microwave pulses; production of microwaves 
from the interaction of electron beams with plas- 
mas; higher power at submillimeter wave lengths; 
and further work on a cyclotron maser. 

Computer vision. Air Force interest in this field 
involves the ability to have a sensor examine a 
scene, have the data transmitted, processed, and 
abstracted, and finally displayed in a useful fash- 
ion to an operational user. The main emphasis of 
the research is on the mechanisms of scene analy- 
sis: preprocessing, segmentation, postprocessing, 
feature processing, and classification. Other work 
involves system design, image registration, and 
parallel processing. 

The following list contains a sampling of recent 
Air Force and Air Force-supported basic research 
accomplishments: 

• The 1974 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was 
awarded solely to Professor Paul J. Flory of 
Stanford University for his research on 
"modes of formation and structure of poly- 
meric substances." Professor Flory's re- 
search has been essentially totally supported 
by AFOSR since 1961. 

• Professor Alfred Y. Wong, UCLA, discov- 
ered the "caviton" in 1974. The discovery 
was considered by the American Institute of 
Physics as one of the three most important 
advances in plasma physics for that year. 
Professor Wong's research was supported by 
AFOSR. 

• Mr. Otto Walchner, working from 1964 
through 1975 at the Aerospace Research 
Laboratories, provided definitive measure- 
ments of the effect of nose bluntness on the 
dynamic stability of reentry vehicles. His lat- 
er work shocked the engineering community 
by proving that the tricyclic theory could not 
be applied to bodies with the slightest nose 
asymmetries. 

• Dr. Art Wennerstrom's research in transonic, 
viscous interactions in turbomachinery, con- 
ducted at ARL from 1967 and continuing at 
AFAPL, Ld to his design and fabrication of 
a compressor of very high efficiency. The 
work continues now at the APL. The Air 
Force, NASA, and American industry have 
become interested in this concept and are 
now beginning a major effort with M.I.T. to 
determine why the compressor is so efficient. 

• Professor George C. Pimentel, University of 
California, Berkeley, has made several out- 


standing scientific contributions while being 
funded by AFOSR since 1956. Perhaps the 
best known is his discovery in 1965 of the 
first successful chemical laser, based on the 
hydrogen-chlorine explosion. The matrix iso- 
lation method was developed in Professor 
Pimentel's laboratory to permit leisurely in- 
frared spectroscopic studies of highly reac- 
tive molecules which would be transient or 
nonexistent under normal conditions. 

• Lt. Robert W. King, of the Terrestrial Sci- 
ences Division of the Air Force Geophysics 
Laboratory, has been analyzing laser ranging 
observations of the moon to determine more 
accurately certain geodetic parameters that 
affect Air Force weapons systems. One of 
these parameters is the earth's principal geo- 
potential term, GM (G, the Newtonian gravi- 
tational constant, and M, the earth mass). All 
earth gravity models include this term as a 
factor, and it is a key component of the geo- 
detic and geophysical (G&G) error budgets 
for Minuteman and the Advanced ICBM. In 
July 1975, Lt. King reported an improved 
value for GM to the Defense Mapping Agen- 
cy (DMA). His analysis provided the most 
accurate means for determining GM, and the 
precision of his determination met DMA's 
projected 1982 ICBM G&G error budget re- 
quirements — seven years ahead of schedule. 
Lt. King's analysis has also led to an experi- 
mental result of fundamental scientific signifi- 
cance: namely, that the mass responsible for 
an object's inertia is equivalent to the mass 
responsible for its gravity field. This is the 
equivalence principle, the cornerstone of Ein- 
stein's theory of relativity. According to sev- 
eral recent theories of gravitation, however, 
the gravitational and inertial masses of an 
object are not exactly the same if the gravita- 
tional self-energy of the object varies with its 
position in a gravity field. Such a failure of 
the equivalence principle could not be detect- 
ed in a laboratory experiment, but it would 
cause an anomalous monthly variation of one 
meter or more in the moon's motion about the 
earth. Lt. King's five-year analysis of lunar 
ranging data has shown that there is no such 
variation to within the accuracy of the range 
observations, about 15 cm. 

• A program begun under the direction of Dr. 
Paul Carr at the Air Force Cambridge Re- 
search Laboratory (AFCRL) in 1968 has 
provided major contributions to the establish- 
ment of a sound scientific base for surface 
acoustic wave (SAW) technology. The re- 
search has involved studies of optimum 
acoustic materials, wave propagation charac- 


teristics, and transducers for converting elec- 
tromagnetic to acoustic energy. Other re- 
search has concentrated on design and fabri- 
cation techniques of SAW components, such 
as delay lines, filters, and resonators. Re- 
search is continuing in-house under the direc- 
tion of the Rome Air Development Center. 
• In 1971, the AFCRL Solid State Sciences 
Laboratory began a program to identify, syn- 
thesize, and grow a satisfactory high power 
laser window material. Halide materials with 
superior mechanical and optical properties 
for 10.6 micrometer high energy laser win- 
dow applications were produced. The halide 
crystals were grown under ultrapure condi- 
tions, hot forged into window configuration, 
and their mechanical and optical properties 
determined. A new casting technique was 
discovered that permits the successful fabri- 
cation of such experimental laser windows. 
Basic research is now essentially complete, 
and the program is being moved to the Air 
Force Materials Laboratory for further inves- 
tigation. 

Current and Future Research 
Emphasis 

The most interesting projects involving basic 
research currently in progress are in high energy 
lasers, engine materials, rocket motor combus- 
tion, flight training simulation, ultrahigh-power 
microwave generation using relativistic electron 
beams, and automated sensor data interpretation. 

Air Force research funding estimates for the 
next three years are affected by priorities but also 
by other factors such as the perceived opportuni- 
ty for advancement in an area and whether re- 
search in a particular area is being done by any 
other organizations. Funding is greatest for re- 
search in materials, mechanics, electronics, chem- 
istry, mathematics, and physics. An intermediate 
level of funding is carried for energy conversion, 
atmospheric sciences, astronomy, and astrophys- 
ics; and research in biological and medical sci- 
ences, human resources, and terrestrial sciences 
receives the lowest level of funding. This is not to 
suggest the absolute priority of each area, but an 
appropriate mix of areas of priority. 

Air Force research areas that will receive great- 
er emphasis in the next three years are listed be- 
low: 

• Aerospace sciences, with emphasis on turbu- 
lence and transonic dynamics; heat transfer, 
turbine blade cooling, and temperature distri- 
bution; and environmental effects on com- 
posites, and crack and failure mechanisms in 
metallic and composite structures. 

DEFENSE 83 


• Chemistry, with emphasis on surface pheno- 
mena and interactions between surfaces; 
high-temperature, high-strength materials; 
and relationship of processability to morphol- 
ogy and microstructure which control the 
properties of polymeric materials. 

• Electronic and solid state sciences, with 
emphasis on high-power microwave tube re- 
search, low-cost inertial sensing, and struc- 
tural materials processing. 

• Life sciences, with emphasis on human oper- 
ator performance modeling; environmental 
protection and toxicological hazards; and 
simulators for training. 

• Mathematical and information sciences, with 
emphasis on logistics/reliability, applications 
of microprocessors, and software technolo- 
• Physics, with emphasis on high energy 

charged particle beams, high average power 
tunable lasers, and high power incoherent 
sources. 
Basic research areas that warrant increased 
emphasis are listed below: 

• Greater growth in the turbulence and com- 
posite structures programs. 

• Research in adhesion to understand the na- 
ture of bonding between protective coatings 
and films and various substrates. 

• Dynamics and spectroscopy of new molecu- 
lar systems for new electronic transition las- 
ers. 

• Nondestructive evaluation of both metals and 
ceramics. 

• Human factors in the design of aerospace 
systems. 

• Identification of factors influencing simulator 
training effectiveness. 

• Probability theory and statistics applied to 
logistics and reliability problems. 

• Fault-tolerant systems design. 

• Conventional weapons phenomenology. 

• Visible and near-IR laser optics in the areas 
of sources, tunability, and geometry. 

Some of the areas warranting emphasis also 
appear in the list of those areas already targeted 
for increased emphasis because it is felt that even 
more resources could be profitably expended 
there. 

Organization and Management of 
Scientific Activities 

The Air Force Office of Scientific Research is 
the single manager of the Air Force basic research 
program. Approximately 30 percent of the re- 
search is conducted in 1 1 Air Force laboratories, 
under the immediate control of the laboratory 

84 DEFENSE 


commander. Sixty percent is conducted by in- 
dustrial firms and universities through contracts 
and grants managed directly by AFOSR. The 
remainder represents contracts managed by the 
laboratories and support money. 

Decisions to initiate and conduct research are 
based on the importance of the problem to the Air 
Force, the competence of the investigator, and 
the budget of the sponsoring organization. Wheth- 
er the problem will be tackled in-house or outside 
depends on manpower and expertise available. 

There are several mechanisms used to ensure 
that basic research contributes to the Air Force 
mission. The validated goals of the Air Force re- 
search program are incorporated into the Re- 
search Planning Guide. These objectives are writ- 
ten by groups comprised of people from the Air 
Force technology laboratories. Headquarters Air 
Force Systems Command, and the Air Force re- 
search community. AFOSR, with laboratory in- 
puts and coordination, publishes the Air Force 
Research Plan in response to the Research Plan- 
ning Guide. The plan details research efforts di- 
rected at achieving the stated objectives. 

A yearly Technology Planning Guide is pub- 
lished by Air Force Systems Command. This 
document contains the validated goals of the Air 
Force exploratory and advanced development 
programs, the programs to which Air Force labo- 
ratories devote more than 90 percent of their re- 
sources. The research community contributes a 
section to the Technology Planning Guide on re- 
search results ready for transfer to or considera- 
tion by development programs. 

Prior to FY 1977, most Air Force basic research 
was concentrated in only a few laboratories and 
AFOSR. Now, however, each of the 1 1 laborato- 
ries devotes approximately 7 percent of its man- 
power to basic research. Research at each labora- 
tory, naturally, tends to concentrate on basic 
studies to support the laboratory's development 
mission and technology base. With AFOSR as the 
single manager of Air Force research, assurances 
can be made that relevant problems are addressed 
and that results are passed to the appropriate lab- 
oratory for consideration in further development 
planning. 

Individual research projects are initiated only if 
they can be sustained at a critical level of effort 
determined by the program manager. That is, the 
program manager determines if there are enough 
good scientists with enough equipment and sup- 
port reasonably to assure the problem's solution. 

The overall research budget is determined by 
the Director of Defense Research and Engineering 
and Air Force headquarters within the congres- 
sional constraints of the total Air Force budget. It 
is at this level that decisions are made on the 


amount of resources to devote to basic research 
in competition with development programs. 
AFOSR, with the cooperation and coordination of 
the Air Force laboratories, manages the program 
at the determined level. 

Annual research program reviews with the 
Office of the Director of Defense Research and 
Engineering ensure that the Air Force program is 
coordinated with those of the other services. 
Meetings with other Government agencies and the 
scientific community on both a formal and infor- 
mal basis assure a sound scientific program that is 
unique to the Air Force. 

The optimum situation for Air Force research 
would be enough good scientists working on ev- 
ery identified problem reasonably to assure its 
solution. Lack of resources forces the program to 
focus on certain higher priority problems and ig- 
nore others. For instance, of 489 research objec- 
tives identified by Air Force Systems Command, 
the Air Force research plan identified work on 
only 297, or 61 percent, in FY 1978. 

In-house Research 

Normally, new in-house research is proposed 
during the laboratory planning cycle. Each of the 
1 1 Air Force laboratories submits its research 
plan to AFOSR in the fall. This plan concentrates 
on the fiscal year following the one about to be- 
gin. For instance, plans submitted in autumn 1977 
will concentrate on work to be done in FY 1979. 
Research is proposed in response to the Research 
Planning Guide. 

Each research effort is reviewed by at least two 
higher levels of management twice a year. Pro- 
gress, problems, the budget, and milestones are 
reviewed. Decisions on continuation of the effort, 
relative importance of the work, etc., are based in 
part on these reviews. 

Each laboratory director also has a relatively 
small amount of money for use in funding small 
high-risk, high-potential payoff projects. This fund 
can be used quickly to follow developments oc- 
curring outside the normal planning cycle. Pro- 
jects funded this way are expected to be integrat- 
ed into the regular laboratory program if they 
show promise or cancelled before they get too 
big. 

The contract and grant program managed by 
AFOSR relies primarily on the submission of 
unsolicited proposals for initiation of new work. 
Proposals are selected on the basis of originality, 
significance to science, scientific competence of 
the investigator, the appropriateness of the pro- 
posed research to the Air Force, and the reasona- 
bleness of the proposed budget. All AFOSR pro- 
grams are also reviewed at least twice annually. 


Interagency Coordination of Basic Research 

Coordination and cooperation are basic to the 
orderly conduct of research. The most fundamen- 
tal forms of coordination are the wide reading by, 
and active participation in scientific societies of, 
individual project scientists and program managers. 

In many cases, several agencies have an inter- 
est in conducting or sponsoring research in the 
same fields of science. When interest is wide 
enough, or the investment large enough, commit- 
tees or groups are often formed to direct and co- 
ordinate the efforts of the interested parties. Un- 
necessary duplication can be avoided, results dis- 
seminated more rapidly, and assurances given that 
all relevant problems are being addressed. A few 
of the many examples of this kind of formal inter- 
agency coordination are cited below. 

• The Joint Services Research Offices Ad Hoc 
Working Group addresses problems unique 
to each service's research mission and focus- 
es on ways to institute and maximize cooper- 
ative efforts. 

• The DOD/NASA Aircraft Simulation Coordi- 
nation Group has representatives from the 
three services, the Federal Aviation Adminis- 
tration (FAA), and NASA. The purpose of 
the group is to exchange plans and ideas on 
current research and development activities 
and to speed dissemination and utilization of 
research findings. 

• The National Academy of Sciences Commit- 
tee on Geodesy, with members from DOD, 
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- 
ministration (NOAA), NASA, and the U.S. 
Geodetic Survey, provides direction to the 
academic research community by advertising 
relevant problems to their respective organi- 
zations. The committee also facilitates intera- 
gency dissemination of research results. 

• The Interagency Materials Group, which co- 
ordinates basic research in materials, is spon- 
sored by DOD, the Department of Transpor- 
tation (DOT), the Department of the Interior 
(DI), NASA, NSF, and occasionally the Na- 
tional Institutes of Health (NIH). Detailed 
information on research objectives, program 
thrusts, and budgetary trends is exchanged 
to assess anticipated impacts resulting from 
individual agency actions. 

The Air Force research program is conducted both 
in-house. at all of the Air Force Laboratories, and 
extramurally in universities, industry, and not-for- 
profit organizations. It has contributed research re- 
sults that have benefited the Air Force, with spin- 
offs that have been utilized by others outside the Air 
Force. It is currently a healthy, viable program with 
the expectation of contributing more to the well- 
being of the Nation's technology base. 

DEFENSE 85 


DEFENSE ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECTS AGENCY 


DARPA'S Mission 

The Defense Advanced Research Projects 
Agency (DARPA) functions as a corporate re- 
search and advanced development center for the 
Department of Defense. It develops long-range, 
high-payoflF technologies which do not fall within 
specific military services (Army, Navy, and Air 
Force) programs or which have been assigned by 
the Secretary of Defense or the Director of De- 
fense Research and Engineering. DARPA has rap- 
id response and a minimum of administrative lev- 
els facilitated by the lack of an implicit commit- 
ment to production. All research is extramural — 
either at industrial or academic organizations or at 
service or other governmental laboratories. 


Role of Basic Research 

DARPA supports no basic research for the ac- 
cumulation of abstract knowledge. DARPA does 
support fundamental research in the 6.1 program 
to provide a foundation for DARPA's major de- 
velopmental thrusts. 


Examples of Basic Research 

Major programs in the past decade that have 
either been completed or largely transferred to a 
using agency include: 

• The Inter-Disciplinary Laboratories in ma- 
terial sciences, established at 12 universities 
with core support for the materials communi- 
ty and an emphasis on local management for 
developing a coordinated interdisciplinary 
attack on research problems in material sci- 
ences, was transferred to the National Sci- 
ence Foundation. 

• The ILLIAC IV, a supercomputer for re- 
search in parallel array processing, was be- 
gun under the 6.1 program. The computer is 
now operational and housed at the Ames 
Research Laboratory of the National Aero- 
nautics and Space Administration. 

• The ARPANET, a worldwide communica- 
tions network linking hundreds of comput- 
ers, to be used for research, remote compu- 
tation, and distributed computation, was 
developed in the 6.1 program. It has now 
become operational and is managed by the 
Defense Communications Agency. 

86 DEFENSE 


• A five-year effort in speech understanding by 
computer was recently completed. 

• Work in rare earth alloys of unusual magnet- 
ic properties has been transferred to the mili- 
tary services. 

• Efforts in unconventional rotating electrical 
machinery including homopolar motors, su- 
perconducting materials, and high current 
solid brushes are being transferred to the mil- 
itary services for design and further develop- 
ment. 

The following continuing programs are just now 
beginning to pay off: 

• A large effort in materials for electro-optical 
systems including laser windows and mirrors, 
optical fibers, Ill-V semiconductors (for a 
variety of uses), pyroelectric materials for 
vidicons, etc., supports a number of DARPA 
sensor programs. 

• A ceramic materials program is just now 
developing test components for production of 
very-high-temperature, low-cost engine parts 
for turbines, burners, etc. 

• A long-term program in artificial intelligence 
has developed both theory and technology 
now being applied to automating militarily 
useful tasks. 

Recent projects still in the experimental stage 
include: 

• A number of advanced memory technology 
programs aimed at making possible very 
cheap memories in the IQio to lOi'^ bit range 
and the software techniques for accessing 
them. 

• The rapid location of buried tunnels and oth- 
er underground emplacements is of signifi- 
cant military interest, and many location 
techniques are being tested. 


Current and Future Research 
Emphasis 

In the near future, priorities will be divided 
between material sciences, emphasizing electronic 
and electro-optical materials and techniques for 
drastically reducing the cost of finished structural 
components, and the area of information-pro- 
cessing techniques, emphasizing those that are 
applicable to the problems of command, control, 
and communications technology. 


Organization and Management of 
Scientific Activities 

At DARPA, the research program is managed 
in the same way as and by the same people who 
supervise complementary development programs. 
This is perhaps more appropriate at DARPA than 
elsewhere since the developmental programs are 
often very high risk and at the leading edge of 
technology. While they may be initiated and ter- 
minated in principle as rapidly as developmental 
projects, in practice the type of work involved 
often dictates a longer time scale. The apportion- 
ment of funds between research and development 
is done on a yearly basis as authorized by Con- 
gress. This assures the overall stability of fund- 
ing, but there is considerable freedom for alloca- 
tion among the individual contracts. 

DARPA is a small organization and its projects 
tend to be fewer and larger than those of the mili- 
tary service research offices. Further, DARPA 
does not have its own procurement organization, 
and all procurements take place through service 
agents. This provides additional monitoring and 
coupling as well as alternative paths to DARPA 
funding. 

DARPA was established in 1958. There have 
been some major programmatic changes in that 
time. For instance, initially it was primarily di- 
rected toward space research, which has since 
been taken up by the Air Force and NASA. A 
large portion of its effort in the early years was 
toward the defender antiballistic missile program, 
which was transferred to the Army. This has 
caused major reorientations i<i the type of re- 
search being sponsored, but not in the methods 
used. 

Because research is handled in the same fash- 
ion as development, there are no inherent alloca- 
tions by contractor type. However, because of 
the work being done, often 40 percent to 80 per- 
cent of the funding goes to universities in a parti- 
cular project, although industrial firms are playing 
an ever-increasing role. 


In the past, there was a greater willingness to 
establish kirge research projects or institutes with 
a fair degree of internal management freedom. As 
a result of a number of independent decisions, 
these efforts have almost entirely vanished, bring- 
ing the management of research much more in 
line with that of development projects. 

There is no explicit policy for external review 
committees, although DARPA participates in a 
number of Department-wide review and coordina- 
tion programs such as the Advisory Group on 
Electron Devices. 

There are no explicit regulations or policies that 
affect DARPA's research program more than any 
other activity (with the possible exception of the 
additional paperwork generated by queries and 
statistical analysis within the Federal research 
establishment). 

Security classification is not a problem since all 
university research is unclassified. 

Useful interagency consultation coordination 
takes place primarily on a case-by-case basis. 
Several standing committees also exist with which 
DARPA cooperates in its particular research 
areas. 

DARPA has served as lead agency in a number 
of research and developmental projects. Because 
of the nature of its work, it is much less likely to 
have occasion to use another lead agency. 

There are no restrictions on the dissemination 
of scientific information resulting from DARPA 
research. 

DARPA has had occasion to support contracts 
in foreign countries, but these are often the result 
of joint cooperative programs and intergovern- 
mental agreements. They make use of unique fa- 
cilities or geography and are usually develop- 
mental — not fundamental — research. Cooperative 
programs with developing countries involving 
long-term cooperation and on-site emplacement of 
equipment appear to be suffering more and more 
from a lack of political stability in those coun- 
tries, which leads to great uncertainty and very 
long negotiation times. 


87 


DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION 

AND WELFARE 


ALCOHOL, DRUG ABUSE, AND MENTAL HEALTH ADMINISTRATION 

Submitted by Francis N. Waldrop, M. D.. Deputy Administrator, ADAM HA 

NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH 

Submitted by Donald S. Fredricl<son, M. D., Director, NIH 

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION 

Submitted by Dr. John M. Mays, Science Adviser, NIE 


ALCOHOL, DRUG ABUSE, AND MENTAL HEALTH ADMINISTRATION 


ADAMHA'S Mission 

The Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health 
Administration (ADAMHA) is the lead Federal 
agency in the national effort to curtail the prob- 
lems of alcohol abuse and alcoholism, drug abuse, 
and mental and emotional illness. Since 1974, 
when it was given the statutory authority, 
ADAMHA has administered the Federal programs 
adopted by Congress to help combat these prob- 
lems. The programs are carried out by the agen- 
cy's three Institutes : The National Institute on 
Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), the 
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), and 
the National Institute on Mental Health (NIMH). 
Though ADAMHA is young as an agency, the 
theme of many programs it administers dates back 
to 1947, when NIMH began funding basic and 
applied research. Both NIAAA and NIDA have 
their historical roots in NIMH. ADAMHA fulfills 
its mission through the administration of research, 
treatment, prevention, and training programs. The 
research program is implemented primarily 
through the grants mechanism and encompasses 
both basic and applied research in the biomedical 
and behavioral sciences as they pertain to alcohol- 
ism, drug abuse, and mental health and illness. 

Through its research programs each Institute 
fulfills its mission by: (1) The development of sci- 
entific knowledge and methodology directed to- 
ward understanding the factors involved in the 
problem — for the individual and for society; (2) 

88 HEALTH, EDUCATION AND WELFARE 


the application of research principles, methods, 
and techniques to assess and demonstrate the util- 
ity of such knowledge for treatment, prevention, 
and education; and (3) the development of person- 
nel for research, treatment, and prevention in its 
areas of responsibility. 


Definition of Basic Research 


Basic research is scientific study directed to- 
ward a fuller understanding of the mechanisms 
and processes underlying the subject of the re- 
search. For NIAAA, the subject is alcoholism, 
and the definition encompasses its etiology as well 
as the medical and social consequences of alco- 
holism and alcohol abuse. For NIDA, the subject 
is drug abuse, and the definition of basic research 
encompasses studies that may be chemical, bio- 
logical, behavioral, or psychosocial in nature. 
Similarly, for NIMH, the subject of interest is 
behavior, and the research encompasses biochem- 
ical, physiological, social, and psychological pro- 
cesses underlying the behavior observed in mental 
health and illness. The research in each of the 
three Institutes makes use of animals as well as 
human subjects and is conducted in both laborato- 
ry and field settings. 


Role of Basic Research 


Basic research, as defined here, is not goal-ori- 
ented. Its focus is the understanding of the prob- 
lems or processes being investigated. This defini- 
tion is to be contrasted with that of applied re- 
search, where the investigator has the specified 
goal of using, in a pragmatic manner, knowledge 
and understanding for the purposes of meeting a 
recognized need. However, it is important to note 
that the distinction is somewhat artificial in that 
each class of research can and has stimulated fur- 
ther research, understanding, and problem resolu- 
tion in the other. It should be pointed out that a 
separate basic research program is not main- 
tained, but that both classes of research are sup- 
ported by the research divisions within each In- 
stitute. ADAMHA, through its Institutes, can best 
meet its responsibilities by continuing to support 
both types of research based on the criteria of 
state of knowledge, reasonableness, scientific and 
technical merit, and relevance to mission. This 
policy recognizes that basic research can and has 
contributed significantly to the fund of knowledge 
necessary to address meaningfully our national 
public health problems. Continued support of ba- 
sic research is considered essential to the mission 
of ADAMHA. 


Examples of Basic Research 

NIAAA 

Prior to the formation of NIAAA in 1972, alco- 
hol-related research was supported through the 
National Center for Prevention and Control of 
Alcoholism, which was established within NIMH 
in 1967. Despite its relatively short history, 
NIAAA has supported scientists who have made 
significant contributions to the understanding of 
the metabolic pathways of alcohol and alcohol- 
induced pathology. Among these are: 

• Lieber, Charles, "Pathogenesis and Treat- 
ment of Alcohol-Induced Diseases." This 
investigator has made two discoveries which 
have had considerable impact on our under- 
standing of alcohol-related medical problems. 
In the first instance, it was discovered that 
alcohol is specifically a hepatotoxin which 
induces the entire range of alcohol-related 
liver disease, including fatty liver, alcoholic 
hepatitis, and cirrhosis. This occurred even 
though test animals were maintained on an 
otherwise well-balanced, nutritional diet. The 
second major contribution by this investiga- 


tor was the discovery that the ratio of two 
amino acids (alpha-amino-n-butyric acid and 
leucine) may serve as a specific blood test to 
detect chronic alcoholism. 

• Chance, Britton, "The Enzyme-Substrate 
Component of Catalase in Alcoholism." This 
investigator's research in alcohol metabolism 
demonstrated that a significant amount of 
alcohol is metabolized by catalase in addition 
to alcohol dehydrogenase. The recognition of 
this nonclassical pathway for alcohol meta- 
bolism is important because metabolism by 
pathways other than alcohol dehydrogenase 
is found in heavy drinkers and alcoholics. 
This finding may be basic to understanding 
the etiology and development of liver pathol- 
ogy. 

For FY 1976, 57 percent of NIAAA's extramur- 
al grant funds were awarded for basic research in 
the biomedical area. This included, for instance, 
24 projects on studies of the central nervous sys- 
tem for research on such topics as alcohol, sero- 
tonin, and sodium fluxes; intracellular effects of 
ethanol on in v/fro nerve tissue; ethanol effects on 
aplysia CNS maintained in vitro: and alcohol ef- 
fects on synaptic membrane receptors. 

The development of several animal models of 
ethanol dependence, tolerance, and withdrawal 
are considered by NIAAA to be significant basic 
research contributions to the study of alcohol ad- 
diction. Among these contributions are: 

• Gerhard Freund induced physical depend- 
ence in the mouse using an all-liquid diet 
containing ethanol. 

• Dora Goldstein perfected an inhalation tech- 
nique for induction of dependence in mice. 

• John Falk obtained high blood alcohol levels 
and dependence in rats by the use of a be- 
havioral polydipsic technique. 

• David Lester selectively bred high and low 
alcohol drinking strains of rats. 

• Richard Meish used operant conditioning 
techniques to get rhesus monkeys to self- 
administer alcohol. 

• Walter Pieper achieved physical dependence 
in infant chimpanzees. 

• Edward Majchrowicz, in the NIAAA's intra- 
mural research program, has developed an 
intubation technique which rapidly induces 
physical dependence on alcohol in the rat. 

NIDA 

More than 95 percent of NIDA's basic research 
is extramural and is funded primarily by grants. 
Since its inception in 1972, NIDA has supported 
many scientists whose basic research efforts were 
responsible for the discovery of "endorphins" 

HEALTH, EDUCATION AND WELFARE 89 


and opiate receptors. This knowledge is consid- 
ered fundamental for elucidating the molecular 
mechanisms involved in drug addition. Among the 
major contributors in endorphin research are: 

• Goldstein, Avram, "Biochemical Mechan- 
isms in Drug Addiction" 

• Simon, Eric, "Effects of Morphine and Ana- 
logues on Cell Metabolism" 

• Snyder, Solomon H., "Johns Hopkins Drug 
Abuse Research Center" 

• Kosterlitz, Hans and John Hughes, "Narcot- 
ic Antagonists: Assessment and Mode of 
Action" 

• Way, Eddy Leong, "Narcotic Tolerance and 
Physical Dependence Mechanisms." 

Other important basic research contributions by 
NIDA-funded scientists include: 

• Ralph Mechoulam's discovery of the active 
ingredient in marihuana, delta-9-THC. 

• Daniel Freedman's work in elucidating the 
mechanisms of action of hallucinogens. 

• Maurice Seevers" development of an animal 
model for determining the abuse liability of 
drugs. 

• Abraham Wikler's pioneering definition of 
drug abuse in behavioral terms. 

• Gabriel Nahas' description of the effects of 
THC on DNA, metabolism, and on hormone 
and immune systems. 

Although NIDA's research program is primarily 
extramural, much important research has been 
conducted at the Addiction Research Center in 
Lexington, Kentucky, which conducts the intra- 
mural programs of NIDA. Contributions made in 
research at the Center include: 

• Identification of a long-lasting partial agonist 
of the morphine type. Quite recently, some 
exciting properties of a new analgesic, bu- 
prenorphine, have been identified. These may 
make it not only an especially useful analge- 
sic but also suggest that it has value for 
treatment. This agent is a partial agonist of 
the morphine type with a ceiling effect equiv- 
alent to about 20 mg. of morphine. It appears 
to have a very long duration of action. 

• The discovery that naloxone is a pure antag- 
onist in man. Naloxone has been shown to 
have essentially no pharmacologic activity in 
man other than antagonizing the actions of 
morphine and, when it is administered chron- 
ically, it does not produce physical depend- 
ence. 

• Receptor identification. Three separate recep- 
tors have been identified that contribute to 
the actions of narcotic analgesics and related 
compounds. These three receptors are re- 
spectively responsible for the euphorigenic, 
sedative, and dysphoric and hallucinogenic 


effects of this general class of drugs. 

• Addiction and hypophoria. An hypothesis 
has been put forth that states that the funda- 
mental pathology of addicts and alcoholics is 
a defect which results in an increased "need' 
state and feelings of hypophoria. The feel- 
ings of hypophoria may be directly related to 
the increased "need" state and are partly 
reactive. These give rise to the impulsivity 
and egocentricity that characterize much of 
the addict's pathological social behavior. In 
this regard, it has been demonstrated that 
addicts and alcoholics have elevated levels of 
both testosterone and luteinizing hormones. 

NIMH 

Research in the extramural program is usually 
investigator-initiated and thus reflects the state of 
knowledge and interests of scientists studying 
behavioral and mental health/illness issues and 
problems. The following list provides examples of 
significant projects supported in the past 10 years 
but cannot reflect the breadth of the extramural 
program . 

• Lynch, Gary, "Psychobiological Studies of 
Neuronal Plasticity." This work demonstrat- 
ed that damaged tissue with the central nerv- 
ous system (hippocampus) can regenerate. 
The sprouting observed in afferent fibers 
subsequent to a lesion may account for be- 
havioral plasticity and postulated memory 
mechanisms. 

• Sperry, Roger, "Investigation of Neural 
Mechanisms in Behavior." This research 
extended and elaborated the notion of hemi- 
spheric specialization and the complementary 
modes of central processing in the two hemi- 
spheres of the brain. This work is considered 
basic to the possible determination of the 
cerebral organization necessary for psycho- 
logical characteristics. 

• Grossman, Sebastian, "Role of Subthalamic 
Mechanisms in Ingestion." Different motivat- 
ed behaviors — i.e., eating or drinking — were 
elicited in sated animals by direct injection of 
different chemicals at the same hypothalamic 
site. This series of studies, which makes use 
of both lesions and neurotransmitters to man- 
ipulate the nervous system, is basic to the 
understanding of the central mechanisms that 
organize ingestive behavior in accordance 
with physiological requirements. 

• Estes, William, "Feedback Processes in Pun- 
ishment and Reward." The theoretical model 
resulted from a series of animal and human 
learning experiments integrated within a 
common set of constructs, theories, and 
models which accounted for limited amounts 


90 


HEALTH, EDUCATION AND WELFARE 


of data. The demonstration that the informa- 
Uona] state of the learner modulates the ef- 
fectiveness of the reward has practical as 
well as basic significance. 

• Quay, Wilbur, "Circadian Phase Shifts and 
Mental Health." The results of this and simi- 
lar studies have established that the mental 
health of humans can be affected by repeated 
forced shifts in the timing of circadian 
rhythms. Knowledge of the role of circadian 
rhythms in the adaptive process has both 
practical and basic significance for the under- 
standing of mental health/illness and its rela- 
tionship to periodic environmental stressors. 

• Kintsch, Walter, "Text Comprehension and 
Memory." This research is concerned with 
the psychological processes involved in the 
storage and retrieval of meaningful material 
in memory. Particularly noteworthy is the 
finding that "meaning" is stored indepen- 
dently of its linguistic or semantic expres- 
sion. This research has significance for the 
understanding of brain-behavior relationships 
in "higher" functions such as memory. 

The NIMH intramural research program con- 
ducts research on the causes, diagnoses, and 
methods of treatment of the mental disorders and 
on the basic biological and behavioral processes 
that underlie these disorders. In this program sci- 
entists are encouraged to do fundamental research 
and to attack problems that they believe solvable 
and that are close to the heart of the mission. 
Greater emphasis is placed on long-term solutions 
than on short-term successes, and the laboratories 
generally have provided the scientific freedom 
necessary for the pursuit of fundamental issues. 
This philosophy applies not only to such laborato- 
ries as Neurophysiology and Cerebral Metabol- 
ism, but extends to the clinical programs such as 
in the Adult Psychiatry and the Clinical Neuro- 
pharmacology Branches. Most of the psychiatrists 
doing research on patients in this program are at 
the same time carrying out some research that can 
be described as basic. 

A Selection of Significant Basic Research 
Projects for the Period 1968-1977 

The list that follows includes some of the most 
significant basic research projects carried out in 
the intramural program during the past 10 years. 
It is a partial list and is not meant to be all-inclu- 
sive. During the past 10 years this program has 
produced about 3,000 publications. It would be 
impractical to list them and virtually impossible to 
provide a "representative" short list. 

Julius Axelrod. Ph.D. The control of catecholamine metabol- 
ism. 


Julius Axelrod. Ph.D. Comparative biochemistry of the pi- 
neal gland. 

Floyd E. Bloom. M.D. The fine structure and content of 
brain monamine-containing nerve fibers. 

Edward V. Evarts, M.D. Cerebral control of movement. 

Seymour Kaufman. M.D. The conversion of phenylalanine 
to tyrosine. 

Marian W. Kies. Ph.D. Myelin-basic protein— its use in es- 
tablishing a model for autoimmune pathology. 

Melvin L. Kobn. Ph.D. Social psychological correlates of 
occupational position. 

Irwin J. Kopin. M.D. False neurochemical transmitters. 

Carl L. Merril. M.D. The effect of small viruses and their 
nucleic acids on the biochemistry of living organisms. 

Mortimer Mishkin. Ph.D. Neural mechanisms in vision. 

5. Harvey Mudd. M.D. Homocystinuria: Methionine meta- 
bolism in mammals. 

Louis Sokoloff. M.D. The (14C) deoxyglucose method for 
the measurement of local cerebral glucose consumption in the 
brain. 

Ichiji Tasaki, M.D. Analysis of the macromolecular structure 
of the nerve membrane during excitation. 

Marian R. Yarrow. Ph.D. A comparison of the retrospective 
and prospective methods of studying child development. 

Current and Future Research Emphasis 

The areas of future interest in basic research 
are, by the very nature of the need for basic re- 
search, difficult to predict. In basic research ser- 
endipity often plays as important a role as plan- 
ning. However, some possible directions based on 
current state of knowledge and research can be 
suggested for the next few years. 

NIAAA 

The current basic research priorities of 
NIAAA are principally in the biomedical area. 

• The central nervous system. Little is known 
about the mechanism underlying alcohol in- 
toxication. Studies are needed to determine 
the effects of alcohol on brain cell mem- 
branes and neurochemistry. More informa- 
tion is needed on the pharmacokinetics of 
alcohol. There is the need to develop phar- 
macological agents that abort or mitigate al- 
cohol intoxication. 

• Nutrition and the gastrointestinal tract. In 
vestigations need to be done on alcohol-in- 
duced damage to the gastric muscosa, as well 
as on the mechanism underlying malabsorp- 
tion of vitamins and other nutrients resulting 
from chronic and excessive use of alcohol. 

• The endocrine system. Alcohol ingestion has 

HEALTH, EDUCATION AND WELFARE 91 


a profound effect on the hormonal control of 
water and mineral balance. The manner in 
which alcohol may affect the production and 
release of hormones is not well understood 
and needs further explication. In view of the 
great technical and scientific advances made 
in endocrine research, it is expected that the 
support base for endocrine-alcohol research 
will increase. 
These important areas of research are expected 
to attract increasing attention in the coming years. 
Of special interest will be the relationship be- 
tween these biological factors and psychosocial 
ones. 

NIDA 

The research programs of NIDA seek to extend 
our knowledge of the pharmacology, biochemis- 
try, and neurophysiology of abused drugs and the 
mechanisms involved in drug tolerance, depend- 
ence, and addiction. The research program in- 
cludes social as well as biomedical factors. Re- 
search areas of current and future interest in- 
clude: 

• Endorphin research. The discovery of endog- 
enous morphine-like substances (endorphins) 
in the brain of man and other vertebrates is a 
major milestone in the efforts to understand 
the mechanisms of action of narcotic drugs. 
Endorphins may be involved in the addictive 
process itself, that is, in the development of 
tolerance and dependence in opiate (heroin) 
addicts. "Endorphine deficiency" might be 
identified as a genetic or acquired trait that 
predisposes some subjects to become victims 
of opiate dependence. The clarification of 
this notion by intensive research efforts 
should be of significance in developing new 
treatment modalities or in designing better 
and more effective prevention strategies for 
opiate addiction. 

• A less obvious but equally exciting possibili- 
ty is that endorphins may somehow be in- 
volved in more general processes that control 
normal behavior and mental health. Two re- 
cent reports demonstrated that endorphins 
can produce a cataleptic state in animals 
characterized by a failure to respond to envi- 
ronmental stimuli in a normal, functional 
manner. The possibility that this induced 
behavior may be an acceptable model for 
dysfunctional states (such as schizophrenia) 
warrants further consideration. To examine 
this possibility, a research effort by NIDA in 
collaboration with NIMH and/or other insti- 
tutes is being explored. The biochemical, 
enzymatic, neurophysiological, neuropsy- 

92 HEALTH, EDUCATION AND WELFARE 


chological, and neuropharmacological ques- 
tions raised by the existence of these sub- 
stances will require continuing exploration. 

• Genetic and developmental studies. The ge- 
netic, mutagenic, and reproductive effects 
associated with the use of abused drugs 
alone or in combination with other drugs and 
environmental stimuli have been studied on a 
limited basis. Although there are no unequi- 
vocal findings that indicate a high risk of 
genetic damage associated with abused drugs 
or with drugs used in treatment, a continued 
program of investigation is necessary in this 
important area. There are some indications 
that abused drugs may cause some problems. 
Preclinical studies are now underway to clari- 
fy previous contradictory results concerning 
the reproductive effects of marihuana. Some 
limited studies are being carried out with 
opiates but it is important to conduct more 
extensive studies to include other drugs. 

• Inhalant abuse. This area of drug use exem- 
plifies the problems associated with drug in- 
teractions. Not only are the substances used 
composed of mixtures, but there are poten- 
tial interactions with other agents and condi- 
tions (e.g., barbiturates, malnutrition). The 
potential problems in these areas have not 
been sufficiently investigated and should be 
given more attention in the future. 

• Health consequences of chronic marihuana 
use. Additional research on the effects of 
chronic marihuana use will be necessary in 
light of the fact that 36 million Americans 
have tried the drug and nearly 15 million use 
it more or less regularly. While the picture 
regarding marihuana use is far from com- 
plete, it should be emphasized that there is 
good evidence that its use is by no means 
harmless. Indeed, there is evidence that 
many years of use by substantial numbers is 
required for the full implications of wide- 
spread drug use to surface. Furthermore, 
marihuana is most widely used by adoles- 
cents and young adults during critical stages 
in their personality development and while 
they are developing intellectual and psycho- 
social skills. To what extent, if any, chronic 
intoxication affects development is still un- 
known. 

In light of the above, it seems imperative to 
carry out large longitudinal epidemiological- 
biomedical studies on the long-term health conse- 
quences of regular marihuana use. Such studies 
should resolve a number of questions regarding 
the hormonal, developmental, immunological, car- 
diovascular-pulmonary, and psychomotor conse- 
quences of chronic use of marihuana. 


NIMH 

The extramural research program of NIMH is 
multifaceted and hroadly based, reflecting the 
complexity of mental health issues. The examples 
included in this section, while obviously not indi- 
cative of the full range of Institute-supported re- 
search, are considered representative of current 
trends manifesting themselves in research — i.e., a 
biological orientation that requires the skills and 
techniques of more than one discipline to inte- 
grate bodies of knowledge and interest in basic 
research that has pragmatic implications. Specific 
projects of current and special interest which fit 
these criteria include: 

• Harvey, John, "Effects of Central Nervous 
System Lesions on Drug Actions." This re- 
search addresses the study of the biochemi- 
cal transmitter systems in the brain, how the 
transmitter substances contribute to the pro- 
pagation of neural impulses, and how the 
biochemical systems interact within the 
brain. The study makes use of behavioral, 
neurological, pharmacological, electrophy- 
siological, and histological techniques. The 
understanding of the neural transmission/ 
coding process is considered fundamental to 
the understanding of central nervous system 
conditions. An important sideproduct of 
these studies has been the determination that 
several drugs that have been used clinically 
have neurotoxic properties. 

• Snyder, Solomon, "Neurochemical Actions 
of Psychotropic Drugs." Basic to the under- 
standing of the mechanism of action of psy- 
chotropic drugs is the understanding of the 
site of such action: the receptor. This study 
relies on the techniques of neurochemistry, 
pharmacology, and histology. Though this 
research is basic in nature it has resulted in 
an inexpensive and reliable technique for 
assaying a psychotherapeutic drug and its 
active metabolites from blood samples. 

• Marler, Peter, "Comparative Study of Vocal 
Learning." This research has acted to inte- 
grate and update much earlier data that fo- 
cused on the nature-nurture controversy. 
Using birds as the experimental animal, this 
investigator formulated a sensory template 
theory of vocal development by demonstrat- 
ing, through auditory feedback techniques, 
that both vocal perception and production 
were modifiable. Recent evidence suggests 
that the auditory template hypothesis may be 
fruitful in the understanding of human 
speech perception and development. 

Current projects of interest within the NIMH 
intramural program include: 


John B. Calhoun. Ph.D. Social organization and population 
density in rodents. 

Giulio L. Canloni. M.D. Study of the S-Adenosylmethionine 
synthetase of yeast. 

Werner A. Klee. Ph.D. Studies on the biochemical basis of 
narcotic drug action. 

Dennis L. Murphy. M.D. Blood platelets as models for the 
study of neurotransmitter function. 

David M. Neville. Jr.. M.D. The role of the ceil membrane in 
cellular organization. 

Candace B. Pert. Ph.D. The physiological function of opiate 
receptors and their endogenous ligands. 

Louis Sokoloff. M.D. Studies of regional circulation in the 
metabolism of the brain. 

Basic research areas that merit continuing or 
additional attention within NIMH in the near fu- 
ture include: 

• Basic biological and developmental studies. 
Research in the brain amine systems appears 
promising and is basic to understanding the 
mechanisms of action of potentially thera- 
peutic drugs, and the biorhythmic activity of 
the brain particularly as it may relate to cy- 
clic illnesses and emotional development. Oth- 
er biologically oriented areas that merit fur- 
ther attention are the abnormal levels of cer- 
tain enzymes found in mental patients, be- 
havioral genetics, and the neurological and 
chemical bases for abnormal psychological 
effects. 

• Early adolescent psychobiology and develop- 
ment. Alarmingly high rates of pregnancy, 
venereal disease, alcohol and drug abuse, 
vandalism and personal violence, and depres- 
sion and suicide in early adolescence point to 
the need for better information about this 
critical stage of development. Early adoles- 
cence is the phase that encompasses the bio- 
logical changes of puberty; status change in 
role definition from child to adolescent; and 
peer influence on attitudes and behavior. 
Technological advances in endocrinology and 
social science methodology now make this 
area ripe for exploitation. There is a need to 
do careful simultaneous studies of the endo- 
crine and bodily changes of puberty, along 
with concomitant emotional and behavioral 
changes. The need for such research is point- 
ed up by the almost absolute lack of reliable 
information on early adolescent develop- 
ment. Ages 10-15 are not even included as a 
separate category in the U.S. vital statistics 
data; this gap in reported data also contri- 
butes significantly to the absence of an epide- 
miology of mental illness in the early adoles- 
cent phase. 

HEALTH. EDUCATION AND WELFARE 93 


Research Priorities 

Advance program planning, for both the near 
and far term, is one of the more important func- 
tions in the management of research. This func- 
tion extends to the method of setting priorities, 
i.e., whether categories of research are permitted 
to have the same priority or whether each catego- 
ry has its own discrete priority. Questions about 
research priorities are difficult and become in- 
creasingly difficult as the time span the planning 
covers increases. The report Research in the 
Service of Mental Health, submitted by the 
Research Task Force of NIMH after two years of 
study, aptly concluded that "it would be unwise 
to attempt to set specific priorities — to say, for 
example, that research on one type of mental ill- 
ness has a higher priority than research on anoth- 
er type. Setting priorities of these kinds could be 
detrimental to the research program, because, 
once established, they become self-perpetuating. 
NIMH should handle the problem of priorities by 
flexible and continuous review of planning." 
ADAMHA expects to support research broadly 
within the areas defined by its member Institutes, 
but the specific subareas must depend upon new 
advances and developments, and the agency must 
retain the flexibility to restructure its priorities as 
necessary to pursue promising research of poten- 
tial relevance to the mission. Without that flexibil- 
ity, vital or promising research areas may suffer 
because of insuflficient attention and support. 
ADAMHA's research effort is broadly based and 
includes both basic and applied studies. Within 
each of the three Institutes every effort is made to 
maintain balanced programs. With this approach it 
is not a question of what areas are not supported 
but one of relative balance. One of the determi- 
nants of the balance is the state of the art in any 
given field. Added impetus in one field necessarily 
results in reducing the effort in other areas. The 
availability of supplemental or contingency re- 
sources to maximize the return from promising 
research areas without detracting from other pro- 
grams would be helpful. 


Organization and Management of 
Scientific Activities 

Each of the three ADAMHA Institutes supports 
basic research in both the intramural and extra- 
mural programs. The extramural programs of the 
Institutes are implemented largely through grant 
support, and procedures for review and manage- 
ment are equivalent. 

The majority of basic research is within the 
grants programs and thus is investigator-initiated. 

94 HEALTH. EDUCATION AND WELFARE 


Grant applications are assigned to an Initial Re- 
view Group (IRG, peer review). The peer review 
process subjects each new proposal and compet- 
ing renewal request for research support to a 
group evaluative judgment as to its scientific and 
technical merit. The projects finally recommended 
for approval are those that demonstrated the high- 
est level of scientific merit. Each Institute also 
has an Advisory Council which, in turn, reviews 
the recommendations of the IRG's and makes its 
own recommendations. All grant applications 
undergo this dual review process. Only applica- 
tions that have been recommended for approval 
by both groups may be considered for funding. 
Institute staffs make the funding decision on the 
basis of the priority scores assigned to the appli- 
cations by the review groups. 

Within the intramural research environment, 
most research is also investigator-initiated. Major 
program influences on the course of the research 
are: (1) The establishment of laboratories and sec- 
tions in specific disciplines or problem areas; (2) 
the appointment of scientists of known ability to 
head laboratories and sections; (3) the hiring of 
individual scientists with high competence and 
known interests; and (4) the flexible assignment of 
space, staff, and funds for research. Prior to un- 
dertaking the research, the individual scientist 
d